A Brief Chronology of Muslim History

[Muhammad]

6th Century (500-599) C.E.

545: Birth of Abdullah, the Holy Prophet's father.

571: Birth of the Holy Prophet. Year of the Elephant. Invasion of Makkah by Abraha the Viceroy of Yemen, his retreat.

577: The Holy Prophet visits Madina with his mother. Death of his mother.

580: Death of Abdul Muttalib, the grandfather of the Holy Prophet.

583: The Holy Prophet's journey to Syria in the company of his uncle Abu Talib. His meeting with the monk Bahira at Bisra who foretells of his prophethood.

586: The Holy Prophet participates in the war of Fijar.

591: The Holy Prophet becomes an active member of "Hilful Fudul", a league for the relief of the distressed.

594: The Holy Prophet becomes the Manager of the business of Lady Khadija, and leads her trade caravan to Syria and back.

595: The Holy Prophet marries Hadrat Khadija. Seventh century

7th Century (600-699) C.E.

605: The Holy Prophet arbitrates in a dispute among the Quraish about the placing of the Black Stone in the Kaaba.

610: The first revelation in the cave at Mt. Hira. The Holy Prophet is commissioned as the Messenger of God.

613: Declaration at Mt. Sara inviting the general public to Islam.

614: Invitation to the Hashimites to accept Islam.

615: Persecution of the Muslims by the Quraish. A party of Muslims leaves for Abyssinia.

616: Second Hijrah to Abysinnia.

617: Social boycott of the Hashimites and the Holy Prophet by the Quraish. The Hashimites are shut up in a glen outside Makkah.

619: Lifting of the boycott. Deaths of Abu Talib and Hadrat Khadija. Year of sorrow.

620: Journey to Taif. Ascension to the heavens.

621: First pledge at Aqaba.

622: Second pledge at Aqaba. The Holy Prophet and the Muslims migrate to Yathrib.

623: Nakhla expedition.

624: Battle of Badr. Expulsion of the Bani Qainuqa Jews from Madina.

625: Battle of Uhud. Massacre of 70 Muslims at Bir Mauna. Expulsion of Banu Nadir Jews from Madina. Second expedition of Badr.

626: Expedition of Banu Mustaliq.

627: Battle of the Trench. Expulsion of Banu Quraiza Jews.

628: Truce of Hudaibiya. Expedition to Khyber. The Holy Prophet addresses letters to various heads of states.

629: The Holy Prophet performs the pilgrimage at Makkah. Expedition to Muta (Romans).

630: Conquest of Makkah. Battles of Hunsin, Auras, and Taif.

631: Expedition to Tabuk. Year of Deputations.

632: Farewell pilgrimage at Makkah.

632: Death of the Holy Prophet. Election of Hadrat Abu Bakr as the Caliph. Usamah leads expedition to Syria. Battles of Zu Qissa and Abraq. Battles of Buzakha, Zafar and Naqra. Campaigns against Bani Tamim and Musailima, the Liar.

633: Campaigns in Bahrain, Oman, Mahrah Yemen, and Hadramaut. Raids in Iraq. Battles of Kazima, Mazar, Walaja, Ulleis, Hirah, Anbar, Ein at tamr, Daumatul Jandal and Firaz.

634: Battles of Basra, Damascus and Ajnadin. Death of Hadrat Abu Bakr. Hadrat Umar Farooq becomes the Caliph. Battles of Namaraq and Saqatia.

635: Battle of Bridge. Battle of Buwaib. Conquest of Damascus. Battle of Fahl.

636: Battle of Yermuk. Battle of Qadsiyia. Conquest of Madain.

637: Conquest of Syria. Fall of Jerusalem. Battle of Jalula.

638: Conquest of Jazirah.

639: Conquest of Khuizistan. Advance into Egypt.

640: Capture of the post of Caesaria in Syria. Conquest of Shustar and Jande Sabur in Persia. Battle of Babylon in Egypt.

641: Battle of Nihawand. Conquest Of Alexandria in Egypt.

642: Battle of Rayy in Persia. Conquest of Egypt. Foundation of Fustat.

643: Conquest of Azarbaijan and Tabaristan (Russia).

644: Conquest of Fars, Kerman, Sistan, Mekran and Kharan.Martyrdom of Hadrat Umar. Hadrat Othman becomes the Caliph.

645: Campaigns in Fats.

646: Campaigns in Khurasan, Armeain and Asia Minor.

647: Campaigns in North Africa. Conquest of the island of Cypress.

648: Campaigns against the Byzantines.

651: Naval battle of the Masts against the Byzantines.

652: Discontentment and disaffection against the rule of Hadrat Othman.

656: Martyrdom of Hadrat Othman. Hadrat Ali becomes the Caliph. Battle of the Camel.

657: Hadrat Ali shifts the capital from Madina to Kufa. Battle of Siffin. Arbitration proceedings at Daumaut ul Jandal.

658: Battle of Nahrawan.

659: Conquest of Egypt by Mu'awiyah.

660: Hadrat Ali recaptures Hijaz and Yemen from Mu'awiyah. Mu'awiyah declares himself as the Caliph at Damascus.

661: Martyrdom of Hadrat Ali. Accession of Hadrat Hasan and his abdication. Mu'awiyah becomes the sole Caliph.

662: Khawarij revolts.

666: Raid of Sicily.

670: Advance in North Africa. Uqba b Nafe founds the town of Qairowan in Tunisia. Conquest of Kabul.

672: Capture of the island of Rhodes. Campaigns in Khurasan.

674: The Muslims cross the Oxus. Bukhara becomes a vassal state.

677: Occupation of Sarnarkand and Tirmiz. Siege of Constantinople.

680: Death of Muawiyah. Accession of Yazid. Tragedy of Kerbala and martyrdom of Hadrat Hussain.

682: In North Africa Uqba b Nafe marches to the Atlantic, is ambushed and killed at Biskra. The Muslims evacuate Qairowan and withdraw to Burqa.

683: Death of Yazid. Accession of Mu'awiyah II.

684: Abdullah b Zubair declares himself aS the Caliph at'Makkah. Marwan I becomes the Caliph' at Damascus. Battle of Marj Rahat.

685: Death of Marwan I. Abdul Malik becomes the Caliph at Damascus. Battle of Ain ul Wada.

686: Mukhtar declares himself as the Caliph at Kufa.

687: Battle of Kufa between the forces of Mukhtar and Abdullah b Zubair. Mukhtar killed.

691: Battle of Deir ul Jaliq. Kufa falls to Abdul Malik.

692: The fall of Makkah. Death of Abdullah b Zubair. Abdul Malik becomes the sole Caliph.

695: Khawarij revolts in Jazira and Ahwaz. Battle of the Karun. Campaigns against Kahina in North Africa. The' Muslims once again withdraw to Barqa. The Muslims advance in Transoxiana and occupy Kish.

 

8th Century (700-799) C.E.

700: Campaigns against the Berbers in North Africa.

702: Ashath's rebellion in Iraq, battle of Deir ul Jamira.

705: Death of Abdul Malik. Accession of Walid I as Caliph.

711: Conquest of Spain, Sind and Transoxiana.

712: The Muslims advance in Spain, Sind and Transoxiana.

713: Conquest of Multan.

715: Death of Walid I. Accession of Sulaiman.

716: Invasion of Constantinople.

717: Death of Sulaiman. Accession of Umar b Abdul Aziz.

720: Death of Umar b Abdul Aziz. Accession of Yazid II.

724: Death of Yazid II. Accession of Hisham.

725: The Muslims occupy Nimes in France.

732: The battle of Tours in France.

737: The Muslims meet reverse at Avignon in France.

740: Shia revolt under Zaid b Ali. Berber revolt in North Africa. Battle of the Nobles.

741: Battle of Bagdoura in North Africa.

742: The Muslim rule restored in Qiarowan.

743: Death of Hisham. Accession of Walid II. Shia revolt in Khurasan under Yahya b Zaid.

744: Deposition of Walid I1. Accession of Yazid II1 and his death. Accession of Ibrahim and his overthrow. Battle of Ain al Jurr. Accession of Marwan II.

745: Kufa and Mosul occupied by the Khawarjites.

746: Battle of Rupar Thutha, Kufa and Mosul occupied by Marwan II.

747: Revolt of Abu Muslim in Khurasan.

748: Battle of Rayy.

749: Battles of lsfahan and Nihawand. Capture of Kufa by the Abbasids. As Saffah becomes the Abbasid Caliph at Kufa.

750: Battle of Zab. Fall of Damascus. End of the Umayyads.

751: Conquest of Wasit by the Abbasid. Murder of the Minister Abu Salama.

754: Death of As Saffah. Accession of Mansur as the Caliph.

755: Revolt of Abdullah b Ali. MUrder of Abu Muslim. Sunbadh revolt in Khurasan.

756: Abdul Rahman founds the Umayyad state in Spain.

762: Shia revolt under Muhammad (Nafs uz Zakia) and Ibrahim.

763: Foundation of Baghdad. Defeat of the Abbasids in Spain.

767: Khariji state set up by Ibn Madrar at Sijilmasa. Ustad Sees revolt in Khurasan.

772: Battle of Janbi in North Africa. Rustamid. state set up in Morocco.

775: Death or the Abbasid Caliph Mansur, Accession of Mahdi.

777: Battle of Saragossa in Spain.

785: Death of the Caliph Mahdi. Accession of Hadi.

786: Death of Hadi. Accession of Harun ur Rashid.

788: Idrisid state set up in the Maghrib. Death of Abdul Rahman of Spain, and accession of Hisham.

792: Invasion of South France.

796: Death of Hisham in Spain; accession of al Hakam.

799: Suppression of the revolt of the Khazars. Ninth century.

9th Century (800-899) C.E.

800: The Aghlabid rule is established in North Africa.

803: Downfall of the Barmakids. Execution of Jafar Barmki.

805: Campaigns against the Byzantines. Capture of the islands of Rhodes and Cypress.

809: Death of Harun ur Rashid. Accession of Amin.

814: Civil war between Amin and Mamun. Amin killed and Mamun becomes the Caliph.

815: Shia revolt under Ibn Tuba Tabs.

816: Shia revolt in Makkah; Harsama quells the revolt. In Spain the Umayyads capture the island of Corsica.

817: Harsama killed.

818: The Umayyads of Spain capture the islands of Izira, Majorica, and Sardinia.

819: Mamun comes to Baghdad.

820: Tahir establishes the rule of the Tahirids in Khurasan.

822: Death of Al Hakam in Spain; accession of Abdul Rahman. II.

823: Death of Tahir in Khurasan. Accession of Talha and his deposition. Accession of Abdullah b Tahir.

827: Mamun declares the Mutazila creed as the state religion.

833: Death of Mamun. Accession of Mutasim.

836: Mutasim shifts the capital to Samarra.

837: Revolt of the Jats.

838: Revolt of Babek in Azarbaijan suppressed.

839: Revolt of Maziar in Tabaristan. The Muslims occupy South Italy. Capture of the city of Messina in Sicily.

842: Death of Mutasim, accession of Wasiq.

843: Revolts of the Arabs.

847: Death of Wasiq, accession of Mutawakkil.

850: Mutawakkil restores orthodoxy.

849: Death of the Tahirid ruler Abdullah b Tahir; accession of Tahir II.

852: Death of Abdur Rahman II of Spain;. accession of Muhammad I.

856: Umar b Abdul Aziz founds the Habbarid rule in Sind.

858: Mutawakkil founds the town of Jafariya.

860: Ahmad founds the Samanid rule in Transoxiana.

861: Murder of the Abbasid Caliph Mutawakkil; accession of Muntasir.

862: Muntasir poisoned to death; accession of Mutasin.

864: Zaidi state established in Tabaristan by Hasan b Zaid.

866: Mutasim flies from Samarra, his depostion and accession of Mutaaz.

867: Yaqub b Layth founds the Saffarid rule in Sistan.

868: Ahmad b Tulun founds the Tulunid rule in Egypt.

869: The Abbasid Caliph Mutaaz forced to abdicate, his death and accession of Muhtadi.

870: Turks revolt against Muhtadi, his death and accession of Mutamid.

873: Tahirid rule extinguished.

874: Zanj revolt in South Iraq. Death of the Samanid ruler Ahmad, accession of Nasr.

877: Death of Yaqubb Layth in Sistan, accession of Amr b Layth.

885: Death of Ahmad b Tulun in Egypt, accession of Khamar- wiyiah.

866: Death of Muhammad I the Umayyad ruler of Spain, accession of Munzir. Death of Abdullah b Umar the Habbari ruler of Sind.

888: Death of Munzir the Umayyad ruler of Spain, accession of Abbullah.

891: The Qarmatian state established at Bahrain.

892: Death of the Samanid ruler Nasr, accession of Ismail.

894: The Rustamids become the vassals of Spain.

896: Death of the Tulunid ruler Khamarwiyiah; accession of Abul Asakir Jaish.

897: Assassination of Abul Asakir Jaish; accession of Abu Musa Harun.

898: Qarmatians sack Basra.

 

10th Century (900-999) C.E.

902: Death of the Abbasid Caliph Muktafi; death of the Saffarid ruler Amr.

903: Assassination of the Qarmatian ruler Abu Said; accession of Abu Tahir.

905: Abdullah b Hamdan founds the Hamdanid rule in Mosul and Jazira. End of the Tulunid rule in Egypt.

907: Death of the Abbasid Caliph Muktafi; accession of Muqtadir.

908: End of the Saffarid rule, annexation of their territories by the Samanids.

909: Ubaidullah overthrows the Aghlablds and founds the Fatimid rule in North Africa.

912: Death of the Umayyad Amir Abdullah in Spain, accession of Abdur Rahman III.

913: Assassination of the Samanid ruler Ahmad II, accession of Nasr II.

928: Mardawij b Ziyar founds the Ziyarid rule in Tabaristan.

929: Qarmatians sack Makkah and carry away the Black Stone from the Holy Kaaba. In Spain, Abdur Rahman III declares himself as the Caliph.

931: Deposition and restoration of the Abbasid Caliph Muqtadir. Death of the Qarmatian ruler Abu Tahir; accession of Abu Mansur.

932: Death of the Abbasid Caliph Muqtadir; accession of Al Qahir.

934: Deposition of the Abbasid Caliph Al Qahir; accession of Ar Radi. Death of the Fatimid Caliph Ubaidullah ; accession of Al Qaim.

935: Assassination of the Ziyarid ruler Mardawij; accession of Washimgir. Death of Hamdanid ruler Abdullah b Hamdan accession of Nasir ud Daula.

936: By coup Ibn Raiq becomes the Amir ul Umara.

938: By another coup power at Baghdad is captured by Bajkam.

940: Death of the Abbasid Caliph Ar Radi, accession of Muttaqi.

941: Assassination of Bajkam, capture of power by Kurtakin.

942: Ibn Raiq recaptures power.

943: Al Baeidi captures power. The Abbasid Caliph Muttaqi is forced to seek refuge with the Hamdanids. Sail ud Daula captures power at Baghdad and the Caliph returns to' Baghdad. Power is captured by Tuzun and Sail ud Daula retires' to Mosul. Death of the Samanid ruler Nasr II, accession of Nuh.

944: Muttaqi is blinded and deposed, accession of Mustakafi.

945: Death of Tuzun. Shirzad becomes Amir ul Umra. The Buwayhids capture power. Deposition of the Abbasid Caliph Mustakafi.

946: Death of the Fatimid Caliph A1 Qaim. accession of Mansur. Death of the Ikhshid ruler Muhammad b Tughj, accession of Abul' Qasim Ungur.

951: The Qarnaatiana restore the Black Stone to the Holy Kaaba.

954: Death of the Sasanid ruler Nuh, accession of Abdul Malik.

961: Death of the Samanid ruler Abdul Malik, accession of Manauf. Alptgin founds the rule of the Ghazanavids. Death of the Umayyad Caliph Abdul Rahman III in Spain; accession of Hakam. Death of the Ikhshid ruler Ungur accession of Abul Hasan Ali.

965: Death of the Qarmatian ruler Abu Mansur; accession of Hasan Azam. Assassination of the Ikhshid ruler Abul Hasan Ali; power captured by Malik Kafur.

967: Death of the Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud Daula, accession of Bakhtiar. Death of the Hamdanid ruler Sail ud Daula.

968: Byzantines occupy Aleppo. Death of the Ikhshid ruler Malik Kafur; accession of Abul Fawaris.

969: The Fatimids conquer Egypt.

972: Buluggin b Ziri founds the rule of the Zirids Algeria.

973: Shia Sunni disturbances in Baghdad; power captured in Baghdad by the Turkish General Subuktgin.

974: Abdication of the Abbasid Caliph Al Muttih; accession of At Taii.

975: Death of the Turk General Subuktgin. Death of the Fatimid Caliph Al Muizz.

976: The Buwayhid Sultan Izz ud Daula recaptures power with the help of his cousin Azud ud Daula. Death of the Samanid ruler Mansur, accession of Nuh II. In Spain death of the Umayyad Caliph Hakam, accession of Hisham II.

978: Death of the Buwayhid Sultan Izz ud Daula, power captured by Azud ud Daula. The Hamdanids overthrown by the Buwayhids.

979: Subkutgin becomes the Amir of Ghazni.

981: End of the Qarmatian rule at Bahrain.

982: Death of the- Buwayhid Sultan Azud ud Daula; accession of Samsara ud Daula.

984: Death of the Zirid ruler Buluggin, accession of Mansur.

986: The Buwyhid Sultan Samsara ud Daula overthrown by Sharaf ud Daula.

989: Death of the Buwayhid Sultan Sharaf ud Daula, accession of Baha ud Daula.

991: Deposition of the Abbasid Caliph At Taii, accession of Al Qadir.

996: Death of the Zirid ruler Mansur, accession of Nasir ud Daula Badis.

997: Death of the Samanid ruler Nuh II, accession of Mansur II.

998: Death of the Samanid ruler Mansur II, accession of Abdul Malik II. Mahmud becomes the Amir of Ghazni.

999: End of the Samanids.

 

11th Century (1000-1099) C.E.

1001: Mahmud Ghazanavi defeats the Hindu Shahis.

1004: Mahmud captures Bhatiya.

1005: Mahmud captures Multan and Ghur.

1008: Mahmud defeats the Rajput confederacy.

1010: Abdication of Hisham II in Spain. accession of Muhammad.

1011: In Spain Muhammad is overthrown by Sulaiman.

1012: In Spain power is captured by Bani Hamud. Death of the Buwayhid Baha ud Daula, accession of Sultan ud Daula.

1016: Death of the Zirrid ruler Nasir ud Daula Badis; accession of Al Muizz.

1018: In Spain power is captured by Abdul Rahman IV.

1019: Conquest of the Punjab by Mahmud Ghazanavi.

1020: The Buwayhid Sultan ud Daula is Overthrown by Musharaf ud Daula, Death of the Fatimid Caliph Al Hakim, accession of Al Zahir.

1024: In Spain assassination of Abdul Rahman IV, accession of Mustafi.

1025: Death of the Buwayhid Mushgraf ud Daula, accession of Jalal ud Daula.

1029: In Spain death of Mustaft, accession of Hisham III.

1030: Death of Mahmud Ghazanavi.

1031: In Spain deposition of Hisharn III, and end of the Umayyad rule. Death of the Abbasid Caliph Al Qadir, accession of Al Qaim.

1036: Death of the Fatimid Caliph Al Zahir, accession of Mustansir. Tughril Beg is crowned as the king of the Seljuks.

1040: Battle of Dandanqan, the Seljuks defeat the Ghazanavids. Deposition of Masud the Ghazanavid Sultan, accession of Muhammad. Al Moravids come to power in North Africa.

1041: The Ghazanavid Sultan Muhammad is overthrown by Maudud.

1044: Death of the Buwayhid Jalal ud Daula, accession of Abu Kalijar.

1046: Basasiri captures power in Baghdad.

1047: The Zirids in North Africa repudiate allegiance to the Fatimid and transfer allegiance to-the Abbasids.

1048: Death of the Buwayhid Abu Kalijar, accession of Malik ur Rahim.

1050: Yusuf b Tashfin comes to power .in the Maghrib.

1055: Tughril Beg overthrows the Buwayhids.

1057: Basasiri recaptures power in Baghdad, deposes Al Qaim and offers allegiance to the Fatimid Caliph.

1059: Tughril Beg recaptures power in Baghdad, al Qaim is restored as the Caliph.

1060: Ibrahim becomes the Sultan of Ghazni. Yusuf b Tashfin founds the city of Marrakesh. The Zirids abandon their capital Ashir and establish their capital at Bougie.

1062: Death of the Zirid ruler Al Muizz, accession of Tamin.

1063: Death of the Seljuk Sultan Tughril Beg; accession of Alp Arsalan.

1071: Battle of Manzikert, the Byzantine emperor taken captive by the Seljuks.

1073: Death of Alp Arsalan, accession of Malik Shah.

1077: Death of the Abbasid Caliph Al Qaim, accession of Al Muqtadi.

1082: The A1 Moravids conquer Algeria.

1086: Battle of Zallakha. The Al Moravids defeat the Christians in Spain. Death of the Rum Sejuk Sultan Sulaiman, accession of Kilij Arsalan.

1091: The Normans conquer the island of Sicily; end of the Muslim rule.

1092: Death of the Seljuk Sultan Malik Shah, accession of Mahmud.

1094: Death of Mahmud; accession of Barkiaruk. Death of the Abbasid Caliph Al Muqtadi, accession of Mustahzir.

1095: The first crusade.

1099: The crusaders capture Jerusalem.

 

13th Century (1200-1299) C.E.

1202: Death of the Ghurid Sultan Ghias ud Din; accession of Mahmud.

1204: Shahab ud Din Ghuri defeated by the Ghuzz Turks.

1206: Death of Shahab ud Din Ghuri. Qutb ud Din Aibik crowned king in Lahore.

1210: Assassination of the Ghurid Sultan MahmUd, accession of Sam. Death of Qutb ud Din Aibak, accession of Aram Shah in India.

1211: End of the Ghurid rule, their territories annexed by the Khawarzam Shahs. In India Aram Shah overthrown by Iltutmish.

1212: Battle of Al Uqab in Spain, end of the Al Mohad rule in Spain. The Al Mohads suffer defeat by the Christians in Spain at the Al-Uqba. The Al Mohad Sultan An Nasir escapes to Morocco where he dies soon after. Accession of his son Yusuf who takes over title of Al Mustansir.

1214: In North Africa death of the Al Mohad ruler Al Nasir, accession of Al Mustansir. The Banu Marin under their leader Abdul Haq occupy the north eastern part of Morocco.

1216: The Banu Marin under their leader Abdul Haq occupy north eastern part of Morocco. The Al Mohads suffer defeat by the Marinids at the battle of Nakur. The Banu Marin defeat the Al Mobads at the battle of Nakur.

1217: The Marinids suffer defeat in the battle fought on the banks of the Sibu river. Abdul Haq is killed and the Marinids evacuate Morocco. In the battle of Sibu the Marinids suffer defeat; their leader Abdul Haq is killed and they evacuate Morocco.

1218: Death of the Ayyubid ruler Al Adil, accession of Al Kamil. The Marinids return to Morocco under their leader Othman and occupy Fez.

1220: Death of the Khawarzam Shah Ala ud Din, accession of Jalal ud Din Mangbarni.

1222: Death of the Zangi ruler Nasir ud Din Mahmud, power captured by Badr ud Din Lulu.

1223: Death of the Al Mohad ruler Muntasir, accession of Abdul Wahid. Death of Yusuf Al Mustansir, accession of Abdul Wahid in Morocco.. In Spain a brother of Yusuf declares his independence and assumes the title of Al Adil. In Spain Abu Muhammad overthrows Al Adil. Al Adil escapes to Morocco and overthrows Abdul Wahid.

1224: Death of the Al Mohad ruler Abdul Wahid, accession of Abdullah Adil.

1225: Death of the Abbasid Caliph Al Nasir, accession of Al Mustansir.

1227: Death of the Al Mohad ruler Abdullah Adil, accession of Mustasim. Assassination of Al Adil, accession of his son Yahya who assumes the throne under the name of Al Mustasim.

1229: Death of the Al Mohad ruler Mustasim, accession of Idris. The Ayyubid Al Kamil restores Jerusalem to the Christians. Abu Muhammad dies in Spain and is succeeded by Al Mamun. Al Mamun invades Morocco with Christian help. Yahya is defeated and power is captured by Al Mamun. He denies the Mahdiship of Ibn Tumarat.

1230: End of the Khawarzam Shah rule.

1232: Death of the Al Mohad ruler Idris, accession, of Abdul Wahid II. Assassination of Al Mamun; accession of his son Ar-Rashid.

1234: Death of the Ayyubid ruler Al Kamil, accession of Al Adil.

1236: Death of Delhi Sultan Iltutmish. Accession of Rukn ud Din Feroz Shah.

1237: Accession of Razia Sultana as Delhi Sultan.

1240: Death of Ar-Rashid; accession of his son Abu Said.

1241: Death of Razia Sultana, accession of Bahram Shah.

1242: Death of Bahram Shah, accession of Ala ud Din Masud Shah as Delhi Sultan. Death of the Al Mohad rules Abdul Wahid, accession of Abu Hasan. Death of the Abbasid Caliph Mustansir, accession of Mustasim.

1243: Death of the Al Mohad ruler Abdul Walid II, accession of

1244: The Al Mohads defeat the Marinids at the battle of Abu Bayash. The Marinids evacuate Morocco.

1245: The Muslims reconquer Jerusalem.

1246: Death of the Delhi Sultan Ala ud Din Masud Shah, accession of Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah.

1248: Death of the Al Mohad ruler Abul Hasan, accession of Omar Murtaza. Abu Said attacks Tlemsen, but is ambushed and killed; accession of his son Murtada.

1250: The Marinids return to Morocco, and occupy a greatar part thereof.

1258: The Mongols sack Baghdad. Death of the Abbasid Caliph Mustasim. End of the Abbasid rule. Fall of Baghdad, end of the Abbasid caliphate. The Mongol II-Khans under Halaku establish their rule in Iran and Iraq with the capital at Maragah. Berek Khan the Muslim chief of the Golden Horde protests against the treatment meted out to the Abbasid Caliph and withdraw his Contingent from Baghdad.

1259: Abu Abdullah the Hafsid ruler declares himself as the Caliph and assumes the name of Al Mustamir.

1260: Battle of Ayn Jalut in Syria. The Mongols are defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt, and the spell of the invincibility of the Mongols is broken. Baybars becomes the Mamluk Sultan.

1262: Death of Bahauddin Zikriya in Multan who is credited with the introduction of the Suhrawardi Sufi order in the IndoPakistan sub-continent.

1265: Death of Halaku. Death of Fariduddin Ganj Shakkar the Chishti saint of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent.

1266: Death of Berek Khan the first ruler of the Golden Horde to be converted to Islam. The eighth crusade. The crusaders invade Tunisia. Failure of the crusade.

1267: Malik ul Salih establishes the first Muslim state of Samudra Pasai in Indonesia. Murtada seeks the help of the Christians, and the Spaniards invade Morocco. The Marinids drive away the Spaniards from Morocco. Assassination of Murtada; accession of Abu Dabbas.

1269: Abu Dabbas is overthrown by the Marinida, End of the Al Mohads. End of the rule of the Al Mohads in Morocco, the Marinids come to power in Morocco under Abu Yaqub.

1270: Death of Mansa Wali the founder of the Muslim rule in M ali.

1272: Death of Muhammad I the founder of the state of Granada. Yaghmurason invades Morocco but meets a reverse at the battle

1273: Death of Jalaluddin Rumi.

1274: Death of Nasiruddin Tusi. The Marinids wrest Sijilmasa from the Zayenids. Ninth crusade under Edward I of England. The crusade ends in fiasco and Edward returns to England.

1277: Death of Baybars.

1280: Battle of Hims.

1283: Death of Yaghmurasan. Accession of his son Othman.

1285: Tunisis splits in Tunis and Bougie.

1286: Death of Ghiasuddin Balban. Death of Abu Yusuf Yaqub. Bughra Khan declares his independence in Bengal under the name of Nasiruddin.

1290: End of the slave dynasty Jalaluddin Khilji comes into power. Othman embarks on a career of conquest and by 1290 C.E. most of the Central Maghreb is conquered by the Zayanids.

1291: Saadi.

1296: Alauddin Ghazan converted to Islam.

1299: Mongols invade Syria. The Marinids besiege Tlemsen the capital of the Zayanids.

 

14th Century (1300-1399) C.E.

1301: In Bengal, Death of Ruknuddin the king of Bengal, succeeded by brother Shamsuddin Firuz.

1302: In Granada, Death of Muhammad II; succession of Muhammad III.

1304: In the Mongols II Khans empire, Death of Ghazan, succession of his brother Khudabanda Ul Jaytu. In Algeria, Death of Othman, succession of his son Abu Zayan Muhammad.

1305: In the Khiljis empire, Alauddin Khilji conquers Rajputana.

1306: In the Chughills empire, Death of Dava, succession of his son Kunjuk.

1307: In the Marinids empire, Assassination of the Marinid Sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf; accession of Abu Thabit

1308: In the Chughills empire, Deposition of Kunjuk, power captured by Taliku. In Algeria, Death of Abu Zayan Muhammad, succession of his brother Abu Hamuw Musa. In the Marinids empire, Abu Thabit overthrown by Abu Rabeah Sulaiman.

1309: In the Chughills empire, Assassination of Taliku, accession of Kubak. In Granada, Muhammad III overthrown by his uncle Abul Juyush Nasr.

1310: In the Chughills empire, Kubak overthrown by his brother Isan Buga. In the Marinids empire, Abu Rabeah Sulaiman overthrown by Abu Said Othman. In the Khiljis empire, Alauddin conquers Deccan.

1312: In Tunisia, In Tunis Abul Baqa is overthrown by Al Lihiani.

1313: In the Mongols II Khans empire, Invasion of Syria, the Mongols repulsed. In the Golden Horde empire, Death of Toktu, accession of his nephew Uzbeg.

1314: In Kashmir, Rainchan an adventurer from Baltistan overthrows Sinha Deva the Raja of Kashmir. Rainchan is converted to Islam and adopts the name of Sadrud Din. In Granada, Abul Juyush overthrown by his nephew Abul Wahid Ismail.

1315: In Tunisia, War between Bougie and Tunis, Lihani defeated and killed. Abu Bakr becomes the ruler of Bougie and Tunis.

1316: In the Mongols II Khans empire, Death of Khudabanda Ul Jaytu, succession of Abu Said. In the Khiljis empire, Death of Alauddin, accession of Shahabuddin Umar, usurpation of power by Malik Kafur, a Hindu convert.

1318: In the Khiljis empire, Assassination of Malik Kafur, deposition of Shahabuddin Umar, accession of Qutbuddin Mubarak. In the Chughills empire, Isan Buga overthrown by Kubak.

1320: In the Khiljis empire, Assassination of Qutbuddin Mubarak, usurpation of power by Khusro Khan a Hindu convert. Khusro Khan overthrown by Ghazi Malik. End of the rule of Khiljis. In Tunisia, Abu Bakr expelled from Tunis by Abu Imran. In the Tughluqs empire, Ghazi Malik founds the rule of the Tughluq dynasty.

1321: In the Chughills empire, Death of Kubak, succession of Hebbishsi who is overthrown by Dava Temur.

1322: In the Chughills empire, Dava Temur overthrown by Tarmashirin, who is converted to Islam. In Bengal, Death of Shamsuddin Firuz. The kingdom divided into two parts. Ghiasuddin Bahadur became the ruler of East Bengal with the capital at Sonargaon, Shahabuddin became the ruler of West Bengal with the capital at Lakhnauti.

1324: In Bengal, Shahabuddin dies and is succeeded by his brother Nasiruddin.

1325: In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Ghazi Malik (Ghiasuddin Tughluq); accession of his son Muhammad Tughluq. In Granada, Assassination of Abul Wahid Ismail, succession of his son Muhammad IV. Assassination of Muhammad IV. Accession of his brother Abul Hallaj Yusuf. In the Samudra Pasai empire, Death of Malik al Tahir I, accession of Malik al Tahir II. In Bengal, With the help of Ghiasuddin Tughluq, Nasiruddin over-throws. Ghiasuddin Bahadur and himself become's the ruler of United Bengal.

1326: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Death of Othman, succession of Orkhan. Orkhan conquers Bursa and makes it his capital.

1327: In the Ottoman Turks empire, The Turks capture the city of Nicaea.

1329: In the Tughluqs empire, Muhammad Tughluq shifts the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in Deccan.

1330: In the Chughills empire, Death of Tramashirin, succession of Changshahi. Amir Hussain establishes the rule of the Jalayar dynasty at Baghdad. In Tunisia, Abu Bakr overthrows Abu Imran and the state is again united, under him. In Bengal, Muhammad b Tughluq reverses the policy of his father and restores Ghiasuddin Bahadur to the throne of Sonargeon.

1331: In the Marinids empire, Death of Abu Said Othman, sucession of Abul Hasan. In Bengal, Annexation of Bengal by the Tughluqs.

1335: In the Mongols II Khans empire, Death of Abu Said, power captured by Arpa Koun. In the Chughills empire, Assassination of Changshahi, accession of Burun.

1336: In the Mongols II Khans empire, Arpa defeated and killed, succeeded by Musa. Birth of Amir Temur. In the Jalayar empire, Death of Amir Hussain, succession of Hasan Buzurg. In the Ottoman Turks empire, The Turks annex the state of Karasi. In Bengal, The Tughluq Governor at Sonargeon assassinated by armour bearer who captured power and declared his independence assuming the name of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah.

1337: In the Mongols II Khans empire, The rule of Musa overthrown, Muhammad becomes the Sultan. In the Sarbadaran empire, On the disintegration of the II-Khan rule, Abdur Razaq a military adventurer establishes an independent principality in Khurasan with the capital at Sabzwar. In the Muzaffarids empire, On the disintegration of the II Khan rule Mubarazud Din Muhammad established the rule of the Muzaffarid dynasty. In the Ottoman Turks empire, The Turks capture the city of Nicomedia. In Algeria, Algeria is occupied by Marinids.

1338: In the Mongols II Khans empire, Muhammad overthrown, succession of Sati Beg. Sati Beg marries Sulaiman who becomes the co-ruler.

1339: In Kashmir, Death of Sadrud Din, throne captured by a Hindu Udyana Deva. In the Chughills empire, Deposition of Burun, accession of Isun Temur. In Bengal, The Tughluq Governor at Lakhnauti-Qadr Khan assassinated and power is captured by the army commander-in-chief who declares his independence and assumes the title of Alauddin Ali Shah.

1340: In the Muzaffarids empire, The Muzaffarids conquer Kirman. In the Chughills empire, Deposition of Isun Temur, accession of Muhammad.

1341: In the Golden Horde empire, Death of Uzbeg, succession of his son Tini Beg.

1342: In the Golden Horde empire, Tini Beg overthrown by his brother Jani Beg.

1343: In the Chughills empire, Muhammad overthrown, power captured by Kazan. In Bengal, Ilyas an officer of Alauddin murders his patron and captures the throne of West Bengal.

1344: In the Mongols II Khans empire, Deposition of Sulaiman, succession of Anusherwan.

1345: In the Samudra Pasai empire, Death of Malik al Tahir II, accession of Tahir III. His rule lasted throughout the fourteenth century. In Bengal, llyas captures East Bengal and under him Bengal is again united. He establishes his capital at Gaur.

1346: In the Chughills empire, Deposition of Kazan, accession of Hayan Kuli. In Tunisia, Death of Abu Bakr, succession of his son Fadal. In Kashmir, Death of Udyana Deva, throne captured by Shah Mirza who assumed the name of Shah Mir, and rounded the rule of Shah Mir dynasty.

1347: The Marinids capture Tunisia. In the Bahmanids empire, Hasan Gangu declares his independence and establishes a state in Deccan with the capital at Gulbarga.

1349: In Kashmir, Death of Shah Mir, accession of his son Jamsbed. In Algeria, The Zayanids under Abu Said Othman recapture Algeria.

1350: In the Sarbadaran empire, Revolt against Abdur Razaq. Power captured by Amir Masud. In Tunisia, Deposition of Fadal, succession of his brother Abu Ishaq. In Kashmir, Jamshed overthrown by his step brother Alauddin Ali Sher.

1351: In the Marinids empire, Death of Abul Hasan, succession of Abu Inan. In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Muhammad Tughluq accession of Firuz Shah Tughluq.

1352: In Algeria, The Marinids again capture Algeria. Abu Said Othman is taken captive and killed.

1353: End of the Mongol II Khan rule. In the Ottoman Turks empire, The Turks acquire the fortress of Tympa on the European side of the Hollespoint. In the Muzaffarids empire, The Muzaffarids conquer Shiraz and establish their capital there.

1354: In the Muzaffarids empire, The Muzaffarids annex Isfahan. In Granada, Assassination of Abu Hallaj Yusuf, succession of his son Muhammad V.

1356: In the Jalayar empire, Death of Hasan Buzurg, succession of his son Owaia.

1357: In the Golden Horde empire, Death of Jani Beg, succession of Kulpa.

1358: In the Bahmanids empire, Death of Hasan Gangu, accession of his son Muhammad Shah. In the Muzaffarids empire, Death of Mubarazuddin Muhammad; accession of Shah Shuja. In the Marinids empire, Assassination of Abu Inan, succession of Abu Bakr Said. In Bengal, Death of Ilyas, succession of his son Sikandar Shah.

1359: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Death of Orkhan, succession of Murad. In the Muzaffarids empire, Shah Shuja deposed by his brother Shah Mahmud. In Tunisia, Abul Abbas a nephew of Abu Ishaq revolts and establishes his rule in Bougie. In Algeria, The Zayanids under Abu Hamuw II recapture Algeria. In the Marinids empire, Abu Bakr Said overthrown by Abu Salim Ibrahim. In Granada, Muhammad V loses the throne in palace revolution, succeeded by Ismail.

1360: In the Muzaffarids empire, Death of Shah Mahmud. Shah Shuja recaptures power. In the Chughills empire, Power captured by Tughluq Temur. In Granada, Ismail overthrown by his brother-in-law Abu Said.

1361: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Murad conquers a part of Thrace and establishes his capital at Demolika in Thrace. In the Golden Horde empire, Kulpa overthrown by his brother Nauroz. In the Marinids empire, Abu Salim Ibrahim overthrown by Abu Umar. Abu Umar overthrown by Abu Zayyan.

1362: In the Golden Horde empire, State of anarchy. During 20 years as many as 14 rulers came to the throne and made their exit. In Granada, Abu Said overthrown by Muhammad V who comes to rule for the second time. In Kashmir, Death of Alauddin Ali Sher, succeeded by his brother Shahabuddin.

1365: In the Ottoman Turks empire, The Turks defeat the Christians at the battle of Matiza, the Byzantine ruler becomes a vassal of the Turks.

1366: In the Marinids empire, Assassination of Abu Zayyan, succession of Abu Faris Abdul Aziz.

1369: Power captured by Amir Temur. End of the rule of the Chughills. Amir Temur captures power in Transoxiana. In Tunisia, Death of Abu Ishaq. Succession of his son Abu Baqa Khalid.

1370: In Tunisia, Abu Baqa overthrown by Abul Abbas under whom the state is reunited. In the Sarbadaran empire, Death of Amir Masud, succession of Muhammad Temur.

1371: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Invasion of Bulgaria, Bulgarian territory upto the Balkans annexed by the Turks.

1372: In the Marinids empire, Death of Abu Faris, succession of Abu Muhammad.

1374: In the Marinids empire, Abu Muhammad overthrown by Abul Abbas.

1375: In the Sarbadaran empire, Deposition of Muhammad Temur, power captured by Shamsuddin. In the Jalayar empire, Death of Owais, succession by his son Hussain.

1376: In Kashmir, Death of Shahabuddin, succeeded by his brother Qutbuddin.

1377: In the Bahmanids empire, Death of Muhammad Shah, succeeded by his son Mujahid.

1378: In the Bahmanids empire, Mujahid assassinated, throne captured by his uncle Daud.

1379: Turkomans of the Black Sheep empire, Bairam Khawaja found the independent principality of the Turkomans of the Black Sheep and established his capital at Van in Armenia. In the Bahmanids empire, Assassination of Daud; accession of Muhammad Khan.

1380: In the Golden Horde empire, Power is captured by Toktamish, a prince of the White Horde of Siberia. In Amir Temur's empire, Amir Temur crosses the Oxus and conquers Khurasan and Herat. Amir Temur invades Persia and subjugates the Muzaffarids and Mazandaran.

1381: In Amir Temur's empire, Annexation of Seestan, capture of Qandhar.

1384: In Amir Temur's empire, Conquest of Astrabad, Mazandaran, Rayy and Sultaniyah. In the Muzaffarids empire, Death of Shah Shuja, accession of his son Zainul Abdin. In the Marinids empire, Abul Abbas overthrown by Mustansir. Turkomans of the Black Sheep empire, Death of Bairam Khawaja, succession of Qara Muhammad.

1386: In Amir Temur's empire, Annexation of Azarbaijan, Georgea overrun. Subjugation of Gilan and Shirvan. Turkomans of the Black Sheep defeated. In the Marinids empire, Death of Mustansir, succession of Muhammad.

1387: In the Marinids empire, Muhammad overthrown by Abul Abbas who comes to power for the second time.

1388: In Algeria, Death of Abu Hamuw II, succession of Abu Tashfin. In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Firuz Shah Tughluq, succeeded by his grandson Ghiasuddin Tughluq II.

1389: In the Muzaffarids empire, Death of the poet Hafiz Shirazi. In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Ghiasuddin Tughluq II, accession: of Abu Bakr Tughluq Shah. Turkomans of the Black Sheep empire, Death of Qara Muhammad. succession of Qara Yusuf.

1390: In the Tughluqs empire, Abu Bakr overthrow by Nasiruddin Tughluq. In Bengal, Death of Sikandar Shah, accession of his son Ghiasud. In the Burji Mamluks empire, The rule of the Burji Mamluks rounded by Saifuddin Barquq.

1391: In Amir Temur's empire, Annexation of Fars. In the Muzaffarids empire, Annexation of the Muzaffarids by Amir Temur. In Granada, Death of Muhammad V, succession of his son Abu Hallaj Yusuf II.

1392: In the Jalayar empire, Death of Hussain, succession of his son Ahmad. In Granada, Death of Abu Hallaj ; succession of Muhammad VI.

1393: Amir Temur defeats Tiktomish, the ruler of the Golden Horde. Capture of the Jalayar dominions by Amir Temur. In the Marinids empire, Death of Abul Abbas; succession of Abu Faris II.

1394: Amir Temur defeats the Duke of Moscow. In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Nasiruddin Tugluq, accession of Alauddin Sikandar Shah. In Kashmir, Death of Qutbuddin. Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Qara Othman established the rule of the White Sheep Turkomans in Diyarbekr.

1395: In the Golden Horde empire, Amir Temur defeated Toktamish and razes Serai to the ground. End of the rule of the Golden Horde. Annexation of Iraq by Amir Temur. In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Sikandar Shah. Accession of Muhammad Shah.

1396: In the Amir Temur's empire, Destruction of Sarai, and of the rule of the Golden Horde. In the Sarbadaran empire, Principality annexed by Amir Temur.

1397: In the Bahmanids empire, Death of Muhammad Khan.

1398: In the Amir Temur's empire, Campaign in India. In the Marinids empire, Death of Abu Faris II. In the Tughluqs empire, Invasion of Amir Timur, Mahmud Shah escapes from the capital. In Morocco, Death of the Marinid Sultan Abu Faris II; succession of his son Abu Said Othman.

1399: In the Amir Temur's empire, Campaign in Iraq and Syria. In the Burji Mamluks empire, Death of Saifuddin Barquq, succession of his son Nasiruddin in Faraj.

15th Century (1400-1499) C.E.

1400: In the Burji Mamluks empire, The Mamluks lost Syria which was occupied by Amir Timur.

1401: In the Golden Horde empire, Death of Timur Qutluq, the ruler, installed by Amir Timur. accession of Shadi Beg.

1402: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Defeat of Bayazid at the battle of Ankara, taken captive Amir Timur.

1403: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Muhammad I, the son of Bayazid ascended the throne.

1405: In the Timurids empire, Death of Amir Timur, succession of his son Shah Rukh.

1407: In the Golden Horde empire, Deposition of Shadi Beg, installation of Faulad Khan by the king maker Edigu.

1410: In the Golden Horde empire, Deposition of Faulad Khan, installation of Timur.

1412: In the Golden Horde empire, Deposition of Timur, installation of Jalaluddin. In the Burji Mamluks empire, Death of Nasiruddin Faraj, succession of Al Muayyad.

1413: In the Golden Horde empire, Deposition of Jalaluddin, installation of Karim Bardo.

1414: In the Golden Horde empire, Deposition of Karim Bardo, installation of Kubak Khan.

1416: In the Golden Horde empire, Deposition of Kubak Khan, installation of Jahar Balrawi. Deposition of Jahar Balrawi, installation of Chaighray.

1419: In the Golden Horde empire, Death of Edigu, overthrow of Chaighray, power captured by Ulugh Muhammad.

1420: In the Golden Horde empire, Ulugh Muhammad overthrown by Daulat Bairawi. Turkomans of the Black Sheep empire, Death of Qara Yusuf; succession of his son Qara Iskandar. In Morocco, Assassination of Abu Said Othman; succession of his infant son Abdul Haq.

1421: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Death of Muhammad I; accession of his son Murad II. In the Burji Mamluks empire, Death of Al Muayyad, succession of Muzaffar Ahmad. Muzaffar Ahmad overthrown by Amir Saifuddin Tata, Death of Saifuddin Tata, succession of his son Muhammad. Muhammad overthrown by Amir Barsbay.

1424: In the Golden Horde empire, Death of Daulat Bairawi, succession of Berk. In Algeria, The Halsida of Tunisia occupy Algeria. This state of affairs continued throughout the fifteenth century.

1425: In the Uzbegs empire, Abul Khayr, a prince of the house of Uzbeg declare his independence in the western part of Siberia.

1427: In the Golden Horde empire, Berk overthrown by Ulugh Muhammad who captured power for the second time.

1430: In the Uzbegs empire, Abul Khayr occupies Khawarazm.

1434: Turkomans of the Black Sheep empire, Deposition of Qara Iskandar; installation of his brother Jahan Shah. Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Death of Qara Othman, succession of his son Ali Beg. In Tunisia, Death of Abul Faris after a rule of forty years, succession of his son Abu Abdullah Muhammad.

1435: In Tunisia, Deposition of Abu Abdullah Muhammad, power captured by Abu Umar Othman.

1438: In the Burji Mamluks empire, Death of Barsbay, accession of his minor son Jamaluddin Yusuf; Yusuf overthrown and power captured by the Chief Minister Saifuddin Gakmuk. Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Ali Beg overthrown by his brother Hamza.

1439: In the Golden Horde empire, Ulugh Muhammad withdrew from Sarai and found the principality of Qazan. Said Ahmad came to power in Sarai.

1440: Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Hamza overthrown by Jahangir a son of Ali Beg.

1441: In the Golden Horde empire, Crimea seceded from Sarai.

1446: In the Timurids empire, Death of Shah Rukh, succession of Ulugh Beg. In the Ottoman Turks empire, Second battle of Kossova resulting in the victory of the Turks. Serbia annexed to Turkey and Bosnia became its vassal.

1447: In the Golden Horde empire, Astra Khan seceded from Sarai.

1449: In the Uzbegs empire, Abul Khayr captures Farghana. In the Timurids empire, Death of Ulugh Beg, succession of Abdul Latif.

1450: In the Timurids empire, Assassination of Abdul Latif, accession of Abu Said.

1451: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Death of Murad II; accession of his son Muhammad II.

1453: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Capture of Constantinople by the Turks. Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Death of Jahangir; accession of his son Uzun Hasan. In the Burji Mamluks empire, Death of Gakmuk. succession of his son Fakhruddin Othman. Othman overthrown by the Mamluk General Saifuddin Inal.

1454: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Attack against Wallachia, Wallachia became a vassal state of Turkey.

1456: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Annexation of Serbia.

1461: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Annexation of Bosnia and Herzogovina. In the Burji Mamluks empire, Death of Saifuddin Inal, succession of his son Shahabuddin Ahmad. Shahabuddin Ahmad overthrown by the Mamluk General Saifuddin Khushqadam.

1462: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Annexation of Albania.

1465: In the Golden Horde empire, Death of Said Ahmad, succession of his son Khan Ahmad. In Morocco, Assassination of Abdul Haq. End of the Marinid rule. Power snatched by Sharif Muhammad al Jati.

1467: Turkomans of the Black Sheep empire, Death of Jahan Shah, end of the rule of the Black Sheep Turkoman rule. Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Jahan Shah of the Black Sheep attacked the White Sheep. Jahan Shah was defeated and the Black Sheep territories annexed by the White Sheep. In the Burji Mamluks empire, Death of Khushqadam, accession of his son Saifuddin Yel Bey. Deposition of Yel Bey, power captured by the Mamluk General Temur Bugha.

1468: In the Uzbegs empire, Death of Abul Khayr, succession of his son Haidar Sultan. Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Uzun Hasan defeated the Timurids at the battle of Qarabagh whereby the White Sheep became the masters of Persia and Khurasan. In the Burji Mamluks empire, Deposition of Femur Bugha, power captured by the Mamluk General Qait Bay.

1469: In the Timurids empire, Death of Abu Said, disintegration of the Timurid state. In Khurasan Hussain Baygara came to power and he ruled during the remaining years of the fifteenth century.

1472: In Morocco, Sharif Muhammad al Jati overthrown by the Wattisid chief Muhammad al Shaikh who establishes the rule of the Wattisid dynasty.

1473: In the Ottoman Turks empire, War against Persia; Persians defeated.

1475: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Annexation of Crimea. War against Venice. Tukey became the master of the Aegean Sea.

1478: Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Death of Uzun Hasan, succession of his son Khalil.

1479: Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Khalil overthrown by his uncle Yaqub.

1480: In the Golden Horde empire, Assassination of Khan Ahmad, succession of his son Said Ahmad II.

1481: In the Golden Horde empire, Said Ahmad I1 overthrown by his brother Murtada. In the Ottoman Turks empire, Death of Muhammad II, accession of Bayazid II.

1488: In the Uzbegs empire, Death of Haider Sultan, succession of his nephew Shaybani Khan. In Tunisia, Death of Abu Umar Othman after a rule of 52 years, succession of Abu Zikriya Yahya.

1489: In Tunisia, Abu Zikriya Yahya overthrown by Abul Mumin.

1490: In Tunisia, Abul Mumin overthrown, power recaptured by Abu Yahya.

1493: Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Death of Yaqub. accession of his son Bayangir.

1495: Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Bayangir overthown by his cousin Rustam.

1496: In the Burji Mamluks empire, Abdication of Qait Bay, succession of his son Nasir Muhammad.

1497: Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Rustam overthrown by Ahmad. Anarchy and fragmentation.

1498: In the Burji Mamluks empire, Deposition of Nasir Muhammad, power captured by Zahir Kanauh.

1499: In the Uzbegs empire, Shayhani Khan conquered Transoxiana. In the Golden Horde empire, Death of Murtada, succession of Said Ahmad III." In the Ottoman Turks empire, The Turks defeated the Venetian fleet in the battle of Lepanto.

 

16th Century (1500-1599) C.E.

 

1500: In the Burji Mamluks empire, Zahir Kanauh overthrown by Ashraf Gan Balat.

1501: Isamil I establishes the Safavid dynasty in Persia, and the Twelve-Imam Shi'ism becomes the state religion.

1507: The Portuguese under d'Albuquerque establish strongholds in the Persian Gulf.

1508: Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, End of the White Sheep dynasty and the annexation of their territories by the Safawids.

1511: D'Albuquerque conquers Malacca from the Muslims.

1517: The Ottoman Sultan Selim Yavuz ("the Grim") defeats the Mamluks and conquers Egypt.

1520: The reign of Sulayman the Magnificent begins.

1526: Louis of Hungary dies at the Battle of Mohacs.

1526: The Battle of Panipat in India, and the Moghul conquest; Babur makes his capital at Delhi and Agra.

1528: The Ottomans take Buda in Hungary.

1529: Unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna.

1550: The architect Sinan builds the Suleymaniye mosque in Istanbul.

1550: The rise of the Muslim kingdom of Atjeh in Sumatra.

1550: Islam spreads to Java, the Moluccas, and Borneo.

1556: The death of Sulayman the Magnificent.

1568: Alpujarra uprising of the Moriscos (Muslims forcibly converted to Catholicism) in Spain.

1571: The Ottomans are defeated at the naval Battle of Lepanto, and their dominance in the Mediterranean is brought to a close.

1578: The Battle of the Three Kings at Qasr al-Kabir in Morocco. King Sebastian of Portugal is killed.

1588: Reign of Safavid Sultan Shah Abbas I begins.

1591: Mustaili Ismailis split into Sulaymanis and Daudis.

 

17th Century (1600-1699) C.E.

1600: Sind annexed by the Mughals. End of the Arghun rule in Sind.

1601: Khandesh annexed by the Mughals.

1603: Battle of Urmiyah. Turks suffer defeat. Persia occupies Tabriz, Mesopotamia. Mosul and Diyarbekr. Death of Muhammad III, Sultan of Turkey, accession of Ahmad I. In Morocco al Shaikh died.

1604: In Indonesia death of Alauddin Rayat Shah, Sultan of Acheh, accession of Ali Rayat Shah III.

1605: Death of the Mughal emperor Akbar; accession of Jahangir.

1607: Annexation of Ahmadnagar by the Mughals.

1609: Annexation of Bidar by the Mughals

1611: Kuch Behar subjugated by the Mughals.

1612: Kamrup annexed by the Mughals.

1617: Death of Ahmad I, Sultan of Turkey, accession of Mustafa; Deposition of Mustafa: accession of Othman II.

1618: Tipperah annexed by the Mughals.: '

1620: In Turkey deposition of Mustafa, accession of Othman II.

1623: In Turkey Mustafa recaptured power.

1625: In Turkey deposition of Mustafa, accession of Murad IV.

1627: Death of the Mughal emperor Jahangir, accession of Shah Jahan.

1628: Reign of Safavid Sultan Shah Abbas I comes to an end.

1629: In Persia death of Shah Abbas; accession of grandson Safi.

1631: Death of Mumtaz Mahal, wife of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and the lady of Taj Mahal, Agra.

1637: Death of Iskandar Muda in Indonesia; accession of Iskandar II.

1640: Death of Otthman Sultan Murad IV. accession of his brother Ibrahim.

1641: Turks capture Azov. In Indonesia death of Iskandar II; accession of the Queen Tajul Alam.

1642: In Persia death of Shah Safi, accession of Shah Abbas II.

1648: In Turkey Ibrahim deposed; accession of Muhammad IV.

1656: Muhammad Kuiprilli becomes the Grand Minister in Turkey.

1658: Deposition of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, accession of Aurangzeb.

1661: Death of Muhammad Kuiprilli, accession of his son Ahmad Kuiprilli.

1667: Death of Shah Abbas II; accession of Shah Sulaiman.

1675: Execution of the Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur. In Indonesia death of the queen Tajul Alam, accession of the queen Nur ul Alam.

1676: Death of the Grand Wazir of Turkey Ahmad Kuiprilli, succession by Kara Mustafa.

1678: In Indonesia death of the queen Nur ul Alam, accession of the queen Inayat Zakia.

1680: Death of Marhatta chieftain Shivaji.

1682: Assam annexed by the Mughals. Aurangzeb shifts the capital to Aurangabad in the Deccan.

1683: The Turks lift the siege of Vienna and retreat. Kara Mustafa the Grand Wazir executed for the failure of the expedition.

1686: Annexation of Bijapur by the Mughals.

1687: Golkunda annexed by the Mughals. Second battle of Mohads. Defeat of the Turks by Austria. Deposition of Muhammad IV. Accession of Sulaiman II.

1688: In Indonesia death of queen Inayat Zakia, accession of the queen Kamalah.

1690: Death of the Ottoman Sultan Sulaiman II, accession of Ahmad II.

1692: Death of the Turk Sultan Ahmad II, accession of Mustafa II.

1694: In Persia death of Shah Safi, accession of Shah Hussain.

1699: In Indonesia death of Queen Kamalah.

 

18th Century (1700-1799) C.E.

 

1700: Murshid Quli Khan declares the independence of Bengal and establishes his capital at Murshidabad.

1703: Ahmad 11I becomes the Ottoman Sultan. Birth of Shah Wali Ullah. Birth of the religious reformer Muhammad b Abdul Wahab.

1707: Death of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, accession of his son Bahadur Shah.

1711: War between Turkey and Russia. Russia defeated at the battle of Pruth.

1712: Death of the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah, accession of Jahandar Shah.

1713: Jahandar Shah overthrown by his nephew Farrukh Siyar.

1718: In the war against Austria, Turkey suffers defeat. By the treaty of Passarowich Turkey loses Hungary.

1719: Deposition of the Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar Muhammad Shah ascends the throne. In Sind the Kalhoras came to power under Nur Muhammad Kalhora.

1722: Saadat Khan found the independent state of Oudh. Battle of Gulnabad between the Afghans and the Persians. The Persians were defeated and the Afghans under Shah Mahmud became the masters of a greater part of Persia. Shah Hussain taken captive, accession of Shah Tahmasp II.

1730: Zanzibar freed from Portugese rule and occupied by Oreart.

1747: Ahmad Shah Durrani established Afghan rule in Afghanistan.

1752: Death of Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, writer of Sassi Pannu, Sohni Mahinwal and Umer Marvo.

1752: Ahmed Shah Durrani captured Punjab, Kashmir and Sind.

1761: Death of Shah Waliullah Dehlavi.

1761: Battle of Panipat. Ahmad Shah Durrani came to India at the invitation of Shah Waliullah Dehlavi and smashed rising Maratha power in the battle of Panipat.

1764: Conversion to Islam of Areadi Gaya. ruler of Futa Bandu State in West Sudan.

1773: Death of Ahmad Shah Durrani.

1783: End of Kalhora rule in Sind.

1797: Death of Muhammad Khan Qachar, king of Persia.

1797: Russia occupied Daghestan.

1799: Ranjit Singh declared himself Maharajah of Punjab defeating Afghans.

1799: Khoqand declared independent Islamic State.

 

19th Century (1800-1899) C.E.

 

1803: Shah Abdul Aziz ibn Saud assassinated by a Shia fanatic. Shah Shuja proclaimed as King of Afghanistan.

1805: Ibn Saud captured Madinah defeating the Turk garrison.

1804: Othman Dan Fodio established Islamic State of Sokoto in Central Sudan.

1805: Faraizi movement launched in Bengal. Muhammad Ali appointed Pasha of Egypt by the Turks.

1806: Khanate of Khiva came into limelight under the rule of Muhammad Rahim Khan.

1807: Darqawi sect revolted against Turkish domination. Tunisia repudiated suzerainty of Algeria.

1811: Birth of Ali Muhammad Bab founder of Bab movement.

1811: British occupied Indonesia.

1812: Madina fell to Egyptians.

1813: Makkah and Taif captured by Egyptian forces and Saudis expelled from Hijaz.

1814: Iran executed treaty of alliance with the British known as Definitive Treaty.

1814: Death of Ibn Saud II.

1814: King Othman of Tunisia assassinated by his cousin Mahmud.

1816: British withdrew from Indonesia restoring it to the Dutch.

1822: Death of Maulay Ismail in Morocco.

1827: Malaya became a preserve of the British according to Anglo- Netherland treaty in 1824.

1828: Russia declared war against Turkey.

1829: Treaty of Adrianople.

1830: French forces landed near Algiers and occupied Algeria ending 313 years rule of Turks.

1831: Syed Ahmad Barelvi and Shah Ismail leaders of Jihad movement in India fell fighting the Sikhs in Balakot.

1832: Turks defeated in the battle of Konia by Egyptian forces.

1832: Sayyid Said, King of Oman, shifted his capital to Zanzibar.

1834: Abdul Qadir recognised as ruler of the area under his control by the French.

1839: Defeat of Turkey by the Egyptians in the battle of Nisibin.

1840: Quadruple Alliance by the European powers to force Egypt to relinquish Syria.

1840: British frees occupied Aden.

1841: State of Adamawa established by Adams adjacent to Nigeria.

1842: Amir Abdul Qadir, ousted from Algeria by the French. crossed over to Morocco.

1842: Shah Shuja assassinated ending the Durrani rule in Afghanistan.

1847: Amir Abdul Qadir surrendred to France under the condition of safe conduct to a Muslim country of his choice but France violated its pledge and sent him as a captive to France.

1849: Death of Muhammad Ali pasha.

1850: Ali Muhammad Bab arrested and executed by Iranian government. Qurratul Ain Tabira, a renowned poetess and staunch advocate of Babism also shot dead.

1852: Release of Amir Abdul Qadir by Napolean III. He settled in Turkey.

1855: Khiva annexed by Russia.

1857: British captured Delhi and eliminated Mughal rule in India after 332 years. Last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon in Burma. This was also the end of 1000 years of Muslim rule over India.

1859: Imam Shamil laid down arms before Russian forces and the Islamic State of Daghestan became a Russian province.

1860: Maulay Muhammad defeated by Spain.

1861: Death of Sultan Abdul-Majid of Turkey.

1862: Faraizi movement fizzled out after the death of Dadu Miyan..

1865: Khoqand State liquidated by Russia.

1869: Jamaluddin Afghani exiled from Afghanistan. He proceeded to Egypt.

1871: Tunisia recognised suzerainty of Turkey through a Firman.

1876: Britain purchased shares of Khediv Ismail in the Suez canal and got involved in Egyptian affairs.

1878: Turkey handed over Cyprus to Britain.

1878: Adrianople fell to Russia.

1879: Jamaluddin Afghani exiled from Egypt.

1879: Treaty of Berlin. Turkey lost 4/5 th of its territory in Europe.

1881: France invaded Tunisia and the Bey acknowledged supremacy of France as a result of the treaty of Bardo.

1881: Muhammad Ahmad declared himself Mahdi in northern Sudan.

1882: Egypt came under British military occupation.

1883: Death of Amir Abdul Qadir in Damascus.

1885: Muhammad Ahmad declared free Government of Sudan under his rule.

1885: Death of Mahdi Sudani five months after the occupation of Khartum.

1890: End of Banbara State.

1895: Afghanistan got Wakhan corridor by an understanding with Russia and British India making Afghan border touch China.

1895: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian claimed prophethood.

1897: State of Bagirimi occupied by the French.

1899: Fall of Mahdi State occupied by the British and the Egyptians jointly.

 

20th Century (1900-1992) C.E.

Previous Century | Complete chronology

1901: Ibn Saud (Abd al-Aziz) captures Riyad.

1901: French forces occupy Morocco.

1904: Morocco becomes a French protectorate under the Conference of Algeciras.

1904: The Presian constitution is promoted.

1905: The beginning of the Salafiyyah movement in Paris with it's main sphere of influence in Egypt.

1907: The beginning of the Young Turks movement in Turkey.

1912: The beginning of the Muhammadiyyah reform movement in Indonesia.

1914: Under Ottoman rule, secret Arab nationalist societies are formed.

1914: World War I.

1916: Arab revolt against Ottoman (Turkish) rule. Lawrence of Arabia leads attacks on the Hijaz Railway.

1918: Armistice signed with Ottomans on October 30.

1918: World War I ends on November 11.

1918: Syria and Damascus become a French protectorate.

1921: Abd Allah bin Husayn in made King of Transjordan. His father was the Sharif of Mecca.

1921: Faysal bin Husayn is made King of Iraq. His father was the Sharif of Mecca.

1921: Abd al-Karim leads a revolt against colonial rule in Moroccan Rif, and declares the "Republic of the Rif".

1922: Mustafa Kemal abolishes the Turkish Sultanate.

1924: The Turkish Caliphate is abolished.

1924: King Abd al-Aziz conquers Mecca and Medina, which leads to the unification of the Kingdoms of Najd and Hijaz.

1925: Reza Khan seizes the government in Persia and establishes the Pahlavi dynasty.

1926: Abd al-Aziz (Ibn Saud) assumes title of King of Najd and Hijaz.

1927: Death of Zaghlul, an Egyptian nationalist leader.

1928: Turkey is declared a secular state.

1928: Hasan al-Banna founds the Muslim Brotherhood.

1932: Iraq granted independence by League of Nations.

1934: War between King Abd al-Aziz and Imam Yahya of the Yemen.

1934: Peace treaty of Ta'if.

1934: Asir becomes part of Saudi Arabia.

1935: Iran becomes the official name of Persia.

1936: Increased Jewish immigration provokes widespread Arab-Jewish fighting in Palestine.

1939: World War II.

1941: British and Russian forces invade Iran and Reza Shah is forced to abdicate in favor of his son Mohammad Reza Shah in Iran.

1943: Beginning of Zionist terrorist campaign in Palestine.

1945: End of World War II.

1946: Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria are granted independence from Britain and France.

1947: Creation of Pakistan from Muslim Majority area in India.

1948: Creation of state of Israel. Arab armies suffer defeat in war with Israel.

1949: Hasan al-Banna, leader of the Muslim Brotherhood, is assassinated.

1951: Libya becomes independent.

1952: King Faruq of Egypt forced to abdicate.

1953: General Zahedi leads coup against Musaddeq, Shah returns to power.

1953: Death of King Abd al-Aziz (Ibn Saud) of Saudi Arabia.

1953: The foundation stone is laid to enlarge the Prophet's mosque in Medina.

1956: Morocco becomes independent.

1956: Tunisia becomes independent.

1957: The Bey of Tunisia is deposed, and Bourguiba becomes becomes president.

1957: Enlargement of the Haram in Mecca begins.

1962: Algeria becomes independent.

1962: Death of Zaydi Imam of Yemen (Ahmad). Crown Prince Bahr succeds him and takes the title Imam Mansur Bi-Llah Muhammad.

1965: Malcom X is assassinated.

1968: The enlargement of the Haram in Mecca is completed.

1969: King Idris of Libya is ousted by a coup led by Colonel Qadhdhafi.

1973: King Zahir Shah of Afghanistan is overthrown.

1975: Death of Elijah Mohammad, leader of Nation of Islam among African Americans in North America.

1975: Wallace Warith Deen Mohammad assumes leadership of Nation of Islam and shifts movement toward Islamic Orthodoxy renaming it American Muslim Mission.

1978: Imam Musa Sadr is apparently assassinated after he disappears on a trip to Libya. He was the religious leader of the Lebanese Twelve-Imam Shi'ites. He promoted the resurgence of Shi'ites in Lebanon and set the foundation of Amal.

1979: The Shah leaves Iran on January 15, thus bringing the Pahlavi dynasty to an end.

1979: On 1 Muharram AH 1400/21 November, the first day of the 15th Islamic century, fanatics led by students of the Theological University of Medina attempt to promote one of their group as Mahdi and thus fulfill a certain prophetic Hadith: "A man of the people of Medina will go forth, fleeing to Mecca, and certain of the people of Mecca will come to him and will lead him forth against his will and swear fealty to him between the rukn (Black Stone corner of the Kabah) and the Maqam Ibrahim." They hold the Haram of Mecca against the army for two weeks. Sixty-three of the 300 fanatics are captured alive, the mosque is recovered, and the conspirators are all put to death.

1980: Beginning of the Iran-Iraq war.

1989: Iran-Iraq comes to an end with much loss of life.

1990: Military annexation of Kuwait by Iraq, under Ba'athist leader Saddam Hussain, is reversed in 1991 by a coalition of United States-led forces.

20th Century (2000 - 2099) C.E

2001: United States invasion of Afghanistan

2003: United States invasion of Iraq

 

http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/history/chronology/index.html

[Shirwac]

1924: The Turkish Caliphate is abolished.

 

Insha-allah another Caliphate will be again.

[S.O.S]

Dear brothers and sisters,

As a Muslim, I have my reservations concerning some of the choices made in the listing of these chronological events which may indicate poor judgement, but as an East-African Muslim, I’m outraged and disappointed at the same time for the compilers’ (ignorance?) narrow minded account of Islamic history!

 

Maybe the moderators could send an e-mail on behalf of the nomads, demanding explanation from the relevant USC department.

[Pi]

Good chronology. Concise.

[Muhammad]

Shams,

 

bro, I understand what you mean, but it was not compiled by the USC, but the MSA in the U, so in a way i can tolarate them, they also have titled it a 'brief'.

 

maybe it would be more productive if we corrected them, add what is missing, and so on.

[S.O.S]

Brother Muhammad,

If it was compiled by Muslims, then I agree with you that we should point out whatever they've overlooked and correct them that way. My initial reactions were based on the glimpse of the URL and the assumption following that these material as originating from that source.

 

But brief or not brief, I don't understand how they could find the space to mention some unnecessary historical details, and yet fail to mention the Ifat and Adal states, their struggle with the Christians, the heroic achievements of Axmed Gurrey, the Islamic centres of Harar, Saylac, Kilwa, etc, the ultimate defeat of the Portuguese catholic crusaders in partnership with Oman sultanate, not to mention the more contemporary history in the colonial era?

[Muhammad]

Yes, and not even Timbuktu is mentioned. and to the far east, Zheng he is also not included.

 

Insha'Allah i'll do some research, focusing on Africa, if you have time we can collect some of the major ones, it will be little hard, but these days we have google.

 

peace!

[Jabhad]

Campaigns, conquests, battles, assasinations, invasions and you name it, they write it here. But then why ignore the other history of Islam.

 

Islam that was civilized while Europe was in dark, Islam that was highly advanced in all fields of education with its big cities and big universities producing such names as:

 

Al-Khawarizmi Algorism,

Algorithm Al-Kindi Alkindus

Ibn Sina Avicenna

Ibn Rushd Averroes

 

Muslims have contributed knowledge,culture, architecture,Science and good governance to the world.

[Muhammad]

^ this is dedicated to brother Haaruun:

 

http://www.jamil.com/personalities/

 

Personalities Noble

Glimpses of Renowned Scientists

and Thinkers of Muslim Era

 

BOARD OF EDITORS

 

Dr. M.A. KAZI,

Adviser to the President on Science and Technology

 

HAKIM MOHAMMED SAID,

President, Hamdard Foundation Pakistan

 

DR. Z.A. HASHMI,

Senior Scientist, National Science Council of Pakistan

 

DR. RAZIUDDIN SIDDIQUI,

Secretary General, Pakistan Academy of Sciences

 

DR. S.M.A SHAH,

National Sciences Council of Pakistan

 

HAKIM NAIMUDDIN ZUBAIRI,

Director of Research (Academic), Hamdard Foundation Pakistan

 

 

Muslim Era Series-1

Personalities Noble Glimpses of Renowned Scientist and Thinkers of Muslim Era

Edited by: Hakim Mohammed Said

Re Edited for Internet Publication

National Sciences Council of Pakistan Hamdard Foundation Pakistan

 

FOREWORD

 

Every Muslim who has even a brief acquaintance with Islamic History is aware that the Islamic Ideology and world-view provided, during the first few centuries Hijra, a most powerful source of inspiration, especially for the Muslim people's quest for knowledge. The Islamic spirit produced a radical transformation in the Arabian Peninsula, as well as among the countries where Islam took firm root in the immediately succeeding centuries. The rich contributions which Islam has made in the various branches of Science served as the basis for the development of modern science. Although many earlier western historians tended to ignore this fact, recent investigations have led to a wider recognition of the importance of the Muslim contributions, especially to the development of scientific thought and the scientific method.

 

The injunctions of the Qur'an and the teachings of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) laid great stress on the acquisition of knowledge and developing the spirit of inquiry. The Muslims strictly followed these precepts and spared no pains to acquire, preserve and spread knowledge. As a result of their vigorous and dedicated efforts, a truly scientific outlook was developed. This in itself is a most valuable service of the Muslims to human civilization. But, unfortunately, the achievements of these luminaries have faded into oblivion due to our indifference and apathy. There is an urgent need to reclaim these achievements and, as their heirs, it is our duty to hold aloft the torch of knowledge lighted by these illustrious personalities. We must, therefore, bring their works into he limelight once again, so that mankind may benefit from them.

 

The present volume, which has been brought out by the Hamdard Foundation, in collaboration with the National Science Council of Pakistan, is an attempt in this direction. An effort has been made to present the scientific achievements of the Muslim era at a glance, so that the illuminating contributions of these Muslim scholars may once again stand out in all their elegance and grandeur. The twenty-six towering scientific and intellectual personalities of the Muslim era whose portraits appear in this volume are recognized as being some of the most outstanding figures in the history of science and scientific thought. I am sure this book will provide a heart-warming glimpse of a golden period of human history and invite us to develop the glorious traditions of our forefathers. I trust that is will be followed by several other volumes on the contributions of various Muslim scientists and technologists whose work as lain hidden in the libraries of the world.

 

Dr. M.A. Kazi

Adviser to the President of Pakistan on Science and Technology Islamabad

 

CONTENTS

 

1. Abu Abdullah al-Battani

2. Abu Raihan al-Biruni

3. Abul Wafa Muhammad al-Buzjani

4. Abu al-Nasr al-Farabi

5. Al-Farghani

6. Abu Hamid al-Ghazali

7. Al-Idrisi

8. Ibn al-Baitar

9. Abu Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham

10. Ibn al-Nafis

11. Ibn Khaldun

12. Ibn Rushd

13. Ibn Sina

14. Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr

15. Jabir Ibn Haiyan

16. Mohammad Bin Musa al-Khawarizmi

17. Omar al-Khayyam

18. Yaqub Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi

19. Abul Hasan Ali al-Masu'di

20. Abu al-Hasan al-Mawardi

21. Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi

22. Jalal al-Din Rumi

23. Ali Ibn Rabban al-Tabari

24. Thabit Ibn Qurra

25. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

26. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahravi

 

ABU ABDULLAH AL-BATANI

( 858 - 929 A.D.)

 

 

Abu Abdallah Muhammad Ibn Jabir Ibn Sinan al-Battani al-Harrani was born around 858 A.D. in Harran, and according to one account, in Battan, a State of Harran. Battani was first educated by his father Jabir Ibn San'an al-Battani, who was also a well-known scientist. He then moved to Raqqa, situated on the bank of the Euphrates, where he received advanced education and later on flourished as a scholar. At the beginning of the 9th century, he migrated to Samarra, where he worked till the end of his life in 929 A.D. He was of Sabian origin, but was himself a Muslim.

 

Battani was a famous astronomer, mathematician and astrologer. He has been held as one of the greatest astronomists of Islam. He is responsible for a number of important discoveries in astronomy, which was the result of a long career of 42 years of research beginning at Raqqa when he was young. His well-known discovery is the remarkably accurate determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds, which is very close to the latest estimates. He found that the longitude of the sun's apogee had increased by 16o, 47' since Ptolemy. This implied the important discovery of the motion of the solar apsides and of a slow variation in the equation of time. He did not believe in the trapidation of the equinoxes, although Copernicus held it.

 

AL-Battani determined with remarkable accuracy the obliquity of the ecliptic, the length of the seasons and the true and mean orbit of the sun.

 

He proved, in sharp contrast to Ptolemy, the variation of the apparent angular diameter of the sun and the possibility of annular eclipses. He rectified several orbits of the moon and the planets and propounded a new and very ingenious theory to determine . the conditions of visibility of the new moon. His excellent observations of lunar and solar eclipses were used by Dunthorne in 1749 to determine the secular acceleration of motion of the moon. He also provided very neat solutions by means of orthographic projection for some problems of spherical trigonometry.

 

In mathematics, he was the first to replace the use of Greek chords by sines, with a clear understanding of their superiority. He also developed the concept of cotangent and furnished their table in degrees.

 

He wrote a number of books on astronomy and trigonometry. His most famous book was his astronomical treatise with tables, which was translated into Latin in the l2th century and flourished as De scienta stellerum - De numeris stellerum et motibus. An old translation of this is available of the Vatican. His Zij was, in fact, more accurate than all others written by that time.

 

His treatise on astronomy was extremely influential in Europe till the Renaissance, with translations available in several languages. His original discoveries both in astronomy and trigonometry were of great consequence in the development of these sciences.

 

[back to Contents]

 

ABU RAIHAN AL-BIRUNI

( 973 - 1048 A.D. )

 

 

Abu Raihan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad al-Biruni was one of the well-known figures associated with the court of King Mahmood Ghaznavi, who was one of the famous Muslim kings of the 11th century A.D. Al-Biruni was a versatile scholar and scientist who had equal facility in physics, metaphysics, mathematics, geography and history. Born in the city of Kheva near "Ural" in 973 A.D ., he was a contemporary of the well-known physician Ibn Sina. At an early age, the fame of his scholarship went around and when Sultan Mahmood Ghaznavi conquered his homeland, he took al-Biruni along with him in his journeys to India several times and thus he had the opportunity to travel all over India during a period of 20 years. He learnt Hindu philosophy, mathematics, geography and religion from the Pandits to whom he taught Greek and Arabic science and philosophy. He died in 1048 A.D. at the age of 75, after having spent 40 years in thus gathering knowledge and making his own original contributions to it.

 

He recorded observations of his travels through India in his well-known book Kitab al-Hind which gives a graphic account of the historical and social conditions of the sub-continent. At the end of this book he makes a mention of having translated two Sanskrit books into Arabic, one called Sakaya, which deals with the creation of things and their types, and the second, Patanjal dealing with what happens after the spirit leaves the body. His descriptions of India were so complete that even the Aein-i-Akbari written by Abu-al-Fadal during the reign of Akbar, 600 years later, owes a great deal to al-Biruni's book. He observed that the Indus valley must be considered as an ancient sea basin filled up with alluvials.

 

On his return from India, al-Biruni wrote his famous book Qanun-i Masoodi (al-Qanun al-Masudi, fi al-Hai'a wa al-Nujum), which he dedicated to Sultan Masood. The book discusses several theorems of astronomy, trigonometry, solar, lunar, and planetary motions and relative topics. In another well-known book al-Athar al-Baqia, he has attempted a connected account of ancient history of nations and the related geographical knowledge. In this book, he has discussed the rotation of the earth and has given correct values of latitudes and longitudes of various places. He has also made considerable contribution to several aspects of physical and economic geography in this book.

 

His other scientific contributions include the accurate determination of the densities of 18 different stones. He also wrote the Kitab-al-Saidana, which is an extensive materia medica that combines the then existing Arabic knowledge on the subject with the Indian medicine. His book the Kitab-al-Jamahir deals with the properties of various precious stones. He was also an astrologer and is reputed to have astonished people by the accuracy of his predictions. He gave a clear account of Hindu numerals, elaborating the principle of position. Summation of a geometric progression apropos of the chess game led to the number:

 

1616-1 = 18,44,6,744,073,709,551,619.

 

He developed a method for trisection of angle and other problems which cannot be solved with a ruler and a compass alone. Al-Biruni discussed, centuries before the rest of the world, the question whether the earth rotates around its axis or not. He was the fist to undertake experiments related to astronomical phenomena. His scientific method, taken together with that of other Muslim scientists, such as Ibn al-Haitham, laid down the early foundation of modern science. He ascertained that as compared with the speed of sound the speed of light is immense. He explained the working of natural springs and artesian wells by the hydrostatic principle of communicating vessels. His investigations included description of various monstrosities, including that known as "Siamese" twins. He observed that flowers have 3,4,5,6, or 18 petals, but never 7 or 9.

 

He wrote a number of books and treatises. Apart from Kitab-al-Hind (History and Geography of India), al-Qanun al-Masudi (Astronomy, Trigonometry), al-Athar al-Baqia (Ancient History and Geography), Kitab al-Saidana (Materia Medica) and Kitab al-Jamahir (Precious Stones) as mentioned above, his book al-Tafhim-li-Awail Sina'at at-Tanjim gives a summary of mathematics and astronomy.

 

He has been considered as one of the very greatest scientists of Islam, and, all considered, one of the greatest of all times. His critical spirit, love of truth, and scientific approach were combined with a sense of toleration. His enthusiasm for knowledge may be judged from his claim that the phrase Allah is Omniscient does not justify ignorance.

 

[back to Contents]

 

ABUL WAFA MUHAMMAD AL-BUZJANI

( 940 - 997 A.D. )

 

 

Abul Wafa Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Ismail al-Buzjani was born in Buzjan, Nishapur in 940 A.D. He flourished as a great mathematician and astronomer at Baghdad and died in 997/998 A.D. He learnt mathematics in Baghdad. In 959 A.D. he migrated to Iraq and lived there till his death.

 

Abul Wafa's main contribution lies in several branches of mathematics, especially geometry and trigonometry. In geometry, his contribution comprises solution of geometrical problems with opening of the compass; construction of a square equivalent to other squares; regular polyhedra; construction of regular hectagon taking for its side half the side of the equilateral triangle inscribed in the same circle; constructions of parabola by points and geometrical solution of the equations:

 

x4 =a and x4 + ax3 = b

 

Abul Wafa's contribution to the development of trigonometry was extensive. He was the first to show the generality of the sine theorem relative to spherical triangles. He developed a new method of constructing sine tables, the value of sin 30' being correct to the eighth decimal place. He also developed relations for sine (a + b) and the formula:

 

2sin2 - a/2 -= 1-cos a, and sin a = 2 sin - a/2 cos - a/2 In addition, he made a special study of the tangent and calculated a table of tangents. He introduced the secant and cosecant for the first time, knew the relations between the trigonometric lines, which are now used to define them, and undertook extensive studies on conics.

 

Apart from being a mathematician, Abul Wafa also contributed to astronomy. In this field he discussed different movements of the moon, and discovered 'variation'. He was also one of the last Arabic translators and commentators of Greek works.

 

He wrote a large number of books on mathematics and other subjects, most of which have been lost or exist in modified forms. His contribution includes Kitab 'Ilm al-Hisab, a practical book of arithmetic, al-Kitab al-Kamil (the Complete Book), Kitab al-Handsa (Applied Geometry). Apart from this, he wrote rich commentaries on Euclid, Diophantos and al-Khawarizmi, but all of these have been lost. His books now extant include Kitab 'Ilm al-Hisab, Kitab al-Handsa and Kitab al-Kamil.

 

His astronomical knowledge on the movements of the moon has been criticized in that, in the case of 'variation' the third inequality of the moon as he discussed was the second part of the 'evection'.. But, according to Sedat, what he discovered was the same that was discovered by Tycho Brache six centuries later. Nonetheless, his contribution to trigonometry was extremely significant in that he developed the knowledge on the tangent and introduced the secant and cosecant for the first time; in fact a sizable part of today's trigonometry can be traced back to him.

 

[back to Contents]

 

ABU AL-NASR AL-FARABI

( 870 - 950 A.D.)

 

 

Abu Nasr Mohammad Ibn al-Farakh al-Farabi was born in a small village Wasij, near Farab in Turkistan in 259 A.H. (870 A.D.). His parents were originally of Persian descent, but his ancestors had migrated to Turkistan. Known as al-Phrarabius in Europe, Farabi was the son of a general. He completed his earlier education at Farab and Bukhara but, later on, he went to Baghdad for higher studies, where he studied and worked for a long time viz., from 901 A.D. to 942 A.D. During this period he acquired mastery over several languages as well as various branches of knowledge and technology. He lived through the reign of six Abbasid Caliphs. As a philosopher and scientist, he acquired great proficiency in various branches of learning and is reported to have been an expert in different languages.

 

Farabi traveled to many distant lands and studied for some time in Damascus and Egypt, but repeatedly came back to Baghdad, until he visited Saif al-Daula's court in Halab (Allepo). He became one of the constant companions of the King, and it was here at Halab that his fame spread far and wide. During his early years he was a Qadi (Judge), but later on the took up teaching as his profession. During the course of his career, he had suffered great hardships and at one time was the caretaker of a garden. He died a bachelor in Damascus in 339 A.H. /950 A.D. at the age of 80 years.

 

Farabi contributed considerably to science, philosophy, logic, sociology, medicine, mathematics and music. His major contributions seem to be in philosophy, logic and sociology and, of course, stands out as an Encyclopedist. As a philosopher, he may be classed as a Neoplatonist who tried to synthesize Platonism and Aristotelism with theology and he wrote such rich commentaries on Aristotle's physics, meteorology, logic, etc., in addition to a large number of books on several other subjects embodying his original contribution, that he came to. be known as the 'Second Teacher' (al-Mou 'allim al-Thani ) Aristotle being the First. One of the important contributions of Farabi was to make the study of logic more easy by dividing it into two categories viz., Takhayyul (idea) and Thubut (proof).

 

In sociology he wrote several books out of which Ara Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila became famous. His books on psychology and metaphysics were largely based on his own work. He also wrote a book on music, captioned Kitab al-Musiqa. He was a great expert in the art and science of music and invented several musical instruments, besides contributing to the knowledge of musical notes. It has been reported that he could play his instrument so well as to make people laugh or weep at will. In physics he demonstrated the existence of void.

 

Although many of his books have been lost, 117 are known, out of which 43 are on logic,11 on metaphysics, 7 on ethics, 7 on political science, 17 on music, medicine and sociology, while 11 are commentaries. Some of his more famous books include the book Fusus al-Hikam, which remained a text book of philosophy for several centuries at various centers of learning and is still taught at some of the institutions in the East. The book Kitab al-Ihsa al-Ulum discusses classification and fundamental principles of science in a unique and useful manner. The book Ara Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila 'The Model City' is a significant early contribution to sociology and political science.

 

Farabi exercised great influence on science and knowledge for several centuries. Unfortunately, the book Theology of Aristotle, as was available to him at that time, was regarded by him as genuine, although later on it turned out to be the work of some Neoplatonic writer. Despite this, he was regarded the Second Teacher in philosophy for centuries and his work, aimed at synthesis of philosophy and sufism, paved the way for Ibn Sina's work.

 

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AL-FARGHANI

(c. 860)

 

 

Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani, born in Farghana, Transoxiana, was one of the most distinguished astronomers in the service of al-Mamun and his successors. He wrote "Elements of Astronomy" (Kitab fi al-Harakat al-Samawiya wa Jawami Ilm al-Nujum i.e. the book on celestial motion and thorough science of the stars), which was translated into Latin in the l2th century and exerted great influence upon European astronomy before Regiomontanus. He accepted Ptolemy's theory and value of the precession, but thought that it affected not only the stars but also the planets. He determined the diameter of the earth to be 6,500 miles, and found the greatest distances and also the diameters of the planets.

 

AL-Farghani's activities extended to engineering. According to Ibn Tughri Birdi, he supervised the construction of the Great Nilometer at al-Fustat (old Cairo). It was completed in 861, the year in which the Caliph al-Mutawakkil, who ordered the construction, died. But engineering was not al-Farghani's forte, as transpires from the following story narrated by Ibn Abi Usaybi'a.

 

Al-Mutawakkil had entrusted the two sons of Musa ibn Shakir, Muhammad and Ahmad, with supervising the digging of a canal named al-Ja'fari. They delegated the work to AL-Farghani, thus deliberately ignoring a better engineer, Sind ibn Ali, whom, out of professional jealousy, they had caused to be sent to Baghdad, away from al-Mutawakkil's court in Samarra. The canal was to run through the new city, al-Ja'fariyya, which al-Mutawakkil had built near Samarra on the Tigris and named after himself. Al-Farghani committed a grave error, making the beginning of the canal deeper than the rest, so that not enough water would run through the length of the canal except when the Tigris was high. News of this angered the Caliph, and the two brothers were saved from severe punishment only by the gracious willingness of Sind ibn Ali to vouch for the correctness of al-Farghani's calculations, thus risking his own welfare and possibly his life. As had been correctly predicted by astrologers, however, al-Mutawakkil was murdered shortly before the error became apparent. The explanation given for Al Farghani's mistake is that being a theoretician rather than a practical engineer, he never successfully completed a construction.

 

The Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim, written in 987, ascribes only two works to AL-Farghani : ( l) "The Book of Chapters, a summary of the Almagest" (Kitab al-Fusul, Ikhtiyar al-Majisti) and (2) "Book on the Construction of Sun-dials" (Kitab 'Amal al-Rukhamat).

 

The Jawami, or 'The Elements' as we shall call it, was Al-Farghani's best-known and most influential work. Abd al-Aziz al-Qabisi (d. 967) wrote a commentary on it, which is preserved in the Istanbul manuscript, Aya Sofya 4832, fols. 97v-114v. Two Latin translations followed in the l2th century. Jacob Anatoli produced a Hebrew translation of the book that served as a basis for a third Latin version, appearing in 1590, whereas Jacob Golius published a new Latin text together with the Arabic original in 1669. The influence of 'The Elements' on mediaeval Europe is clearly vindicated by the presence of innumerable Latin manuscripts in European libraries.

 

References to it in mediaeval writers are many, and there is no doubt that it was greatly responsible for spreading knowledge of Ptolemaic astronomy, at least until this role was taken over by Sacrobosco's Sphere. But even then, 'The Elements' of Al-Farghani continued to be used, and Sacrobosco's Sphere was evidently indebted to it. It was from 'The Elements' (in Gherard's translation) that Dante derived the astronomical knowledge displayed in the 'Vita nuova' and in the 'Convivio'.

 

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ABU HAMID AL-GHAZALI

( 1058-1128 A.D. )

 

 

Abu Hamid Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Tusi al-Shafi'i al-Ghazali was born in 1058 A.D. in Khorasan, Iran. His father died while he was still very young but he had the opportunity of getting education in the prevalent curriculum at Nishapur and Baghdad. Soon he acquired a high standard of scholarship in religion and philosophy and was honored by his appointment as a Professor at the Nizamiyah University of Baghdad, which was recognized as one of the most reputed institutions of learning in the golden era of Muslim history.

 

After a few years, however, he gave up his academic pursuits and worldly interests and became a wandering ascetic. This. was a process (period) of mystical transformation. Later, he resumed his teaching duties, but again left these. An era of solitary life, devoted to contemplation and writing then ensued, which led to the author- ship of a number of everlasting hooks. He died in 1128 A.D. at Baghdad.

 

Ghazali's major contribution lies in religion, philosophy and sufism. A number of Muslim philosophers had been following and developing several viewpoints of Greek philosophy, including the Neoplatonic philosophy, and this was leading to conflict with several Islamic teachings. On the other hand, the movement of sufism was assuming such excessive proportions as to avoid observance of obligatory prayers and duties of Islam. Based on his unquestionable scholarship and personal mystical experience, Ghazali sought to rectify these trends, both in philosophy and sufism.

 

In philosophy, Ghazali upheld the approach of mathematics and exact sciences as essentially correct. However, he adopted the techniques of Aristotelian logic and the Neoplatonic procedures and employed these very tools to lay bare the flaws and lacunas of the then prevalent Neoplatonic philosophy arid to diminish the negative influences of Aristotelianism and excessive rationalism. In contrast to some of the Muslim philosophers, e.g., Farabi, he portrayed the inability of reason to comprehend the absolute and the infinite. Reason could not transcend the finite and was limited to the observation of the relative. Also, several Muslim philosophers had held that the universe was finite in space but infinite in time. Ghazali argued that an infinite time was related to an infinite space. With his clarity of thought and force of argument, he was able to create a balance between religion and reason, and identified their respective spheres as being the infinite and the finite, respectively.

 

In religion, particularly mysticism, he cleansed the approach of sufism of its excesses and reestablished the authority of the orthodox religion. Yet, he stressed the importance of genuine sufism, which he maintained was the path to attain the absolute truth.

 

He was a prolific writer. His immortal books include Tuhafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Ihya al-'Ulum al-Islamia (The Rivival of the Religious Sciences), "The Beginning of Guidance and his Autobiography", "Deliverance from Error". Some of his works were translated into European languages in the Middle Ages. He also wrote a summary of astronomy.

 

Ghazali's influence was deep and everlasting. He is one of the greatest theologians of Islam. His theological doctrines penetrated Europe, influenced Jewish and Christian Scholasticism and several of his arguments seem to have been adopted by St. Thomas Aquinas in order to similarly reestablish the authority of orthodox Christian religion in the West. So forceful was his argument in the favor of religion that he was accused of damaging the cause of philosophy and, in the Muslim Spain, Ibn Rushd (Averros) wrote a rejoinder to his Tuhafut.

 

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AL-IDRISI

( 1099 -1166 A.D. )

 

 

Abu Abdallah Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abdallah Ibn Idris al-Qurtubi al-Hasani, was born in Ceuta, Spain, in 1099 A.D. He was educated in Cordova. Later he traveled far and wide in connection with his studies and then flourished at the Norman court in Palermo. The date of his death is controversial, being either 1166 or 1180 A.D.

 

Biographical notes on him are to be found rather rarely, and according to F. Pons Boigues the underlying reason is the fact that the Arab biographers considered al-Idrisi to be a renegade, since he had been associated with the court of a Christian king and written in praise of him, in his work. The circumstances which led him to settle in Sicily at the court of Roger II are not on record.

 

His major contribution lies in medicinal plants as presented in his several books, specially Kitab al-Jami-li-Sifat Ashtat al-Nabatat. He studied and reviewed all the literature on the subject of medicinal plants and formed the opinion that very little original material had been added to this branch of knowledge since the early Greek work. He, therefore, collected plants and data not reported earlier and added this to the subject of botany, with special reference to medicinal plants. Thus, a large number of new drugs plants together with their evaluation became available to the medical practitioners. He has given the names of the drugs in six languages : Syriac, Greek, Persian, Hindi, Latin and Berber.

 

In addition to the above, he made original contributions to geography, especially as related to economics, physical factors and cultural aspects. He made a planishere in silver for King Roger II, and described the world in Al-Kitab al-Rujari (Roger's Book), also entitled Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq al-A faq (The delight of him who desires to journey through the climates). This is practically a geographical encyclopedia of the time, containing information not only on Asia and Africa, but also Western countries.

 

Al-Idrisi, later on, also compiled another geographical encyclopedia, larger than the former entitled Rawd-Unnas wa-Nuzhat al-Nafs ( Pleasure of men and delight of souls ) also known as Kitab al-Mamalik wa al Masalik.

 

Apart from botany and geography, Idrisi also wrote on fauna, zoology and therapeutical aspects. His work was soon translated into Latin and, especially, his books on geography remained popular both in the East and the West for several centuries.

 

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IBN AL-BAITAR

( DIED 1248 A.D.)

 

 

Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi was one of the greatest scientists of Muslim Spain and was the greatest botanist and pharmacist of the Middle Ages. He was born in the Spanish city of Malaqa (Malaga) towards the end of the l2th century. He learned botany from Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, a learned botanist, with whom he started collecting plants in and around Spain. In 1219 he left Spain on a plant-collecting expedition and traveled along the northern coast of Africa as far as Asia Minor. The exact modes of his travel (whether by land or sea) are not known, but the major stations he visited include Bugia, Qastantunia ( Constantinople), Tunis, Tripoli, Barqa and Adalia. After 1224 he entered the service of al-Kamil, the Egyptian Governor, and was appointed chief herbalist. In 1227 al-Kamil extended his domination to Damascus, and Ibn al-Baitar accompanied him there which provided him an opportunity to collect plants in Syria. His researches on plants extended over a vast area including Arabia and Palestine, which he either visited or managed to collect plants from stations located there. He died in Damascus in 1248.

 

Ibn Baitar's major contribution, Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mu frada, is one of the greatest botanical compilations dealing with medicinal plants in Arabic. It enjoyed a high status among botanists up to the l6th century and is a systematic work that embodies earlier works, with due criticism, and adds a great part of original contribution. The encyclopedia comprises some 1,400 different items, largely medicinal plants and vegetables, of which about 200 plants were not known earlier. The book refers to the work of some 150 authors mostly Arabic, and it also quotes about 20 early Greek scientists. It was translated into Latin and published in 1758.

 

His second monumental treatise Kitab al-Mughni fi al-Adwiya al-Mu frada is an encyclopedia of medicine. The drugs are listed in accordance with their therapeutical value. Thus, its 20 different chapters deal with the plants bearing significance to diseases of head, ear, eye, etc. On surgical issues he has frequently quoted the famous Muslim surgeon, Abul Qasim Zahravi. Besides Arabic, Baitar, has given Greek and Latin names of the plants, thus facilitating transfer of knowledge.

 

Ibn Baitar's contributions are characterized by observation, analysis and classification and have exerted a profound influence on Eastern as well as Western botany and medicine. Though the Jami was translated/published late in the western languages as mentioned above, yet many scientists had earlier studied various parts of the book and made several references to it.

 

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ABU ALI HASAN IBN AL-HAITHAM

( 965 - 1040 A.D.)

 

 

Abu Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham was one of the most eminent physicists, whose contributions to optics and the scientific methods are outstanding. Known in the West as Alhazen, Ibn aI-Hautham was born in 965 A. D. in Basrah, and was educated in Basrah and Baghdad. Thereafter, he went to Egypt, where he was asked to find ways of controlling the flood of the Nile. Being unsuccessful in this, he feigned madness until the death of Caliph al-Hakim. He also traveled to Spain and, during this period, he had ample time for his scientific pursuits, which included optics, mathematics, physics, medicine and development of scientific methods on each of which he has left several outstanding books.

 

He made a thorough examination of the passage of light through various media and discovered the laws of refraction. He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent colors. His book Kitab-at-Manazir was translated into Latin in the Middle Ages, as also his book dealing with the colors of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like shadows, eclipses, the rainbow, and speculated on the physical nature of light. He is the first to describe accurately the various parts of the eye and give a scientific explanation of the process of vision. He also attempted to explain binocular vision, and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in size of the sun and the moon when near the horizon. He is known for the earliest use of the camera obscura. He contradicted Ptolemy's and Euclid's theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of .light emanating from the eyes; according to him the rays originate in the object of vision and not in the eye. Through these extensive researches on optics, he has been considered as the father of modern optics.

 

The Latin translation of his main work, Kitab-at-Manazir, exerted a great influence upon Western science e.g. on the work of Roger Bacon and Kepler. It brought about a great progress in experimental methods. His research in catoptrics centered on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. He made the important observation that the radio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant and investigated the magnifying power of a lens. His catoptrics contain the important problem known as Alhazen's problem. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This leads to an equation of the fourth degree.

 

In his book Mizan al-Hikmah Ibn al-Haitham has discussed the density of the atmosphere and developed a relation between it and the height. He also studied atmospheric refraction. He discovered that the twilight only ceases or begins when the sun is 19o below the horizon and attempted to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. He has also discussed the theories of attraction between masses, and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity.

 

His contribution to mathematics and physics was extensive. In mathematics, he developed analytical geometry by establishing linkage between algebra and geometry. He studied the mechanics of motion of a body and was the first to maintain that a body moves perpetually unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion. This would seem equivalent to the first law of motion.

 

The list of his books runs to 200 or so, very few of which have survived. Even his monumental treatise on optics survived through its Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books on cosmology were translated into Latin, Hebrew and other languages. He has also written on the subject of evolution a book that deserves serious attention even today.

 

In his writing, one can see a clear development of the scientific methods as developed and applied by the Muslims and comprising the systematic observation of physical phenomena and their linking together into a scientific theory. This was a major breakthrough in scientific methodology, as distinct from guess and gesture, and placed scientific pursuits on a sound foundation comprising systematic relationship between observation, hypothesis and verification.

 

Ibn al-Haitham's influence on physical sciences in general, and optics in particular, has been held in high esteem and, in fact, it ushered in a new era in optical research, both in theory and practice.

 

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IBN AL-NAFIS

( 1213 - 1288 A.D.)

 

 

Ala-al-Din Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Abi al-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Damashqi al-Misri was born in 607 A.H. of Damascus. He was educated at the Medical College-cum-Hospital founded by Nur al-Din Zangi. In medicine his teacher was Muhazzab al-Din Abd al-Rahim. Apart from medicine, Ibn al-Nafis learnt jurisprudence, literature and theology. He thus became a renowned expert on Shafi'i School of Jurisprudence as well as a reputed physician.

 

After acquiring his expertise in medicine and jurisprudence, he moved to Cairo where he was appointed as the Principal at the famous Nasri Hospital. Here he imparted training to a large number of medical specialists, including Ibn al-Quff al-Masihi, the famous surgeon. He also served at the Mansuriya School at Cairo. When he died in 678 A. H. he donated his house, library and clinic to the Mansuriya Hospital.

 

His major contribution lies in medicine. His approach comprised writing detailed commentaries on early works, critically evaluating them and adding his own original contribution. His major original contribution of great significance was his discovery of the blood's circulatory system, which was re-discovered by modern science after a lapse of three centuries. He was the first to correctly describe the constitution of the lungs and gave a description of the bronchi and the interaction between the human body's vessels for air and blood. Also, he elaborated the function of the coronary arteries as feeding the cardiac muscle.

 

The most voluminous of his books is Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb, which was designed to be an encyclopedia comprising 300 volumes, but it could not be completed due to his death. The manuscript is available at Damascus. His book on ophthalmology is largely an original contribution and is also extant. However, his book that became most famous was Mujaz al-Qanun and a number of commentaries were written on this. His own commentaries include one on Hippocrates' book. He wrote several volumes on Ibn Sina's Qanun, that are still extant. Likewise he wrote a commentary on Hunayn Ibn Ishaq's book. Another famous book embodying his original contribution was on the effects of diet on health, entitled Kitab al-Mukhtar fi al-Aghdhiya.

 

Ibn Al-Nafis' works integrated the then existing medical knowledge and enriched it, thus exerting great influence on the development of medical science, both in the East and the West. However, only one of his books was translated into Latin at early stages and, therefore, a part of his work remained unknown to Europe for a long time.

 

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IBN KHALDUN

( 1382-1395 A.D.)

 

 

Abd al-Rahman Ibn Mohammad is generally known as Ibn Khaldun after a remote ancestor. His parents, originally Yemenite Arabs, had settled in Spain, but after the fall of Seville, had migrated to Tunisia. He was born in Tunisia in 1332 A.D., where he received his early education and where, still in his teens, he entered the service of the Egyptian ruler Sultan Barquq. His thirst for advanced know- ledge and a better academic setting soon made him leave this service and migrate to Fez. This was followed by a long period of unrest marked by contemporary political rivalries affecting his career. This turbulent period also included a three year refuge in a small village Qalat Ibn Salama in Algeria, which provided him with the opportunity to write Muqaddimah, the first volume of his world history that won him an immortal place among historians, sociologists and philosophers. The uncertainty of his career still continued, with Egypt becoming his final abode where he spent his last 24 years. Here he lived a life of fame and respect, marked by his appointment as the Chief Malakite Judge and lecturing at the AL-Azhar University, but envy caused his removal from his high judicial office as many as five times.

 

Ibn Khaldun's chief contribution lies in philosophy of history and sociology. He sought to write a world history preambled by a first volume aimed at an analysis of historical events. This volume, commonly known as Muqaddimah or 'Prolegomena', was based on Ibn Khaldun's unique approach and original contribution and became a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and sociology. The chief concern of this monumental work was to identify psychological, economic, environmental and social facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the currents of history. In this context, he analyzed the dynamics of group relationships and showed how group-feelings, al-'Asabiyya, give rise to the ascent of a new civilization and political power and how, later on, its diffusion into a more general civilization invites the advent of a still new 'Asabiyya in its pristine form. He identified an almost rhythmic repetition of rise and fall in human civilization, and analyzed factors contributing to it. His contribution to history is marked by the fact that, unlike most earlier writers interpreting history largely in a political context, he emphasized environmental, sociological, psychological and economic factors governing the apparent events. This revolutionized the science of history and also laid the foundation of Umraniyat (Sociology).

 

Apart from the Muqaddimah that became an important independent book even during the lifetime of the author, the other volumes of his world history Kitab al-I'bar deal with the history of Arabs, contemporary Muslim rulers, contemporary European rulers, ancient history of Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, etc., Islamic History, Egyptian history and North-African history, especially that of Berbers and tribes living in the adjoining areas. The last volume deals largely with the events of his own life and is known as Al-Tasrif. This was also written in a scientific manner and initiated a new analytical tradition in the art of writing autobiography A book on mathematics written by him is not extant.

 

Ibn Khaldun's influence on the subject of history, philosophy of history, sociology, political science and education has remained paramount ever since his life. His books have been translated into many languages, both in the East and the West, and have inspired subsequent development of these sciences. For instance, Prof. Gum Ploughs and Kolosio consider Muqaddimah as superior in scholarship to Machiavelli's The Prince written a century later, as the former bases the diagnosis more on cultural, sociological, economic and psychological factors.

 

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IBN RUSHD

( 1128 - 1198 A.D.)

 

 

Abu'l Waleed Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes in the West, was born in 1128 A.D. in Cordova, where his father and grandfather had both been judges. His grandfather was well versed in Fiqh (MaIiki School) and was also the Imam of the Jamia Mosque of Cordova. The young Ibn Rushd received his education in Cordova and lived a quiet life, devoting most of his time to learned pursuits. He studied philosophy and law from Abu J'afar Haroon and from Ibn Baja; he also studied medicine.

 

Al-Hakam, the famous Umayyad Caliph of Spain, had constructed a magnificent library in Cordova, which housed 500,000 books. He himself had studied many of these and made brief marginal comments on them. This rich collection laid the foundation for intellectual study in Spain and provided the background for men like Ibn Rushd, who lived 2 centuries later.

 

Abu Yaqub, the Caliph of Morocco, called him to his capital and appointed him as his physician in place of Ibn Tufail. His son Yaqub al-Mansur retained him for some time but soon Ibn Rushd's views on theology and philosophy drew the Caliph's wrath. All his books, barring strictly scientific ones, were burnt and he was banished to Lucena. However, as a result of intervention of several leading scholars he was forgiven after about four years and recalled to Morocco in 1198; but he died towards the end of the same year. Ibn Rushd made remarkable contributions in philosophy, logic, medicine, music and jurisprudence. In medicine his well-known book Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb was written before 1162 A.D. Its Latin translation was known as 'Colliget'. In it, Ibn Rushd has thrown light on various aspects of medicine, including the diagnoses, cure and prevention of diseases. The book concentrates on specific areas in comparison of Ibn Sina's wider scope of at-Qanun, but contains several original observations of Ibn Rushd.

 

In philosophy, his most important work Tuhafut al-Tuhafut was written in response to al-Ghazali's work. Ibn Rushd was criticized by many Muslim scholars for this book, which, nevertheless, had a profound influence on European thought, at least until the beginning of modern philosophy and experimental science. His views on fate were that man is neither in full control of his destiny nor is it fully predetermined for him. He wrote three commentaries on the works of Aristotle, as these were known then through Arabic translations. The shortest Jami may be considered as a summary of the subject. The intermediate was Talkhis and the longest was the Tafsir. These three commentaries would seem to correspond to different stages in the education of pupils; the short one was meant for the beginners, then the intermediate for the students familiar with the subject, and finally the longest one for advanced studies. The longest commentary was, in fact, an original contribution as it was largely based on his analysis including interpretation of Qu'ranic concepts.

 

In the field of music, Ibn Rushd wrote a commentary on Aristotle's book De Anima. This book was translated into Latin by Mitchell the Scott.

 

In astronomy he wrote a treatise on the motion of the sphere, Kitab fi-Harakat al-Falak. He also summarized Almagest and divided it into two parts: description of the spheres, and movement of the spheres. This summary of the Almagest was translated from Arabic into Hebrew by Jacob Anatoli in 1231.

 

According to Ibn al-Abbar, Ibn Rushd's writings spread over 20,000 pages, the most famous of which deal with philosophy, medicine and jurisprudence. On medicine alone he wrote 20 books. Regarding jurisprudence, his book Bidayat al-Mujtahid wa-Nihayat-al-Muqtasid has been held by Ibn Jafar Zahabi as possibly the best book on the Maliki School of Fiqh. Ibn Rushd's writings were translated into various languages, including Latin, English, German and Hebrew. Most of his commentaries on philosophy are preserved in the Hebrew translations, or in Latin translations from the Hebrew, and a few in the original Arabic, generally in Hebrew script. This reveals his wider acceptance in the West in comparison to the East. The commentary on zoology is entirely lost. Ibn Rushd also wrote commentaries on Plato's Republic, Galen's treatise on fevers, al-Farabi's logic, etc. Eighty-seven of his books are still extant.

 

Ibn Rushd has been held as one of the greatest thinkers and scientists of the l2th century. According to Philip Hitti, Ibn Rushd influenced Western thought from the l2th to the l6th centuries. His books were included in the syllabi of Paris and other universities till the advent of modern experimental sciences.

 

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IBN SINA

( 980 - 1037 A.D.)

 

 

Abu Ali al-Hussain Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina was born in 980 A.D. at Afshana near Bukhara. The young Bu Ali received his early education in Bukhara, and by the age of ten had become well versed in the study of the Qur'an and various sciences. He started studying philosophy by reading various Greek, Muslim and other books on this subject and learnt logic and some other subjects from Abu Abdallah Natili, a famous philosopher of the time. While still young, he attained such a degree of expertise in medicine that his renown spread far and wide. At the age of 17, he was fortunate in curing Nooh Ibn Mansoor, the King of Bukhhara, of an illness in which all the well-known physicians had given up hope. On his recovery, the King wished to reward him, but the young physician only desired permission to use his uniquely stocked library.

 

On his father's death, Bu Ali left Bukhara and traveled to Jurjan where Khawarizm Shah welcomed him. There, he met his famous contemporary Abu Raihan al-Biruni. Later he moved to Ray and then to Hamadan, where he wrote his famous book Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb. Here he treated Shams al-Daulah, the King of Hamadan, for severe colic. From Hamadan he moved to Isphahan, where he completed many of his monumental writings. Nevertheless, he continued traveling and the excessive mental exertion as well as political turmoil spoilt his health. Finally, he returned to Hamadan where he died in 1037 A.D.

 

He was the most famous physician, philosopher, encyclopedist, mathematician and astronomer of his time. His major contribution to medical science was his famous book al-Qanun, known as the "Canon" in the West. The Qanun fi al-Tibb is an immense encyclopedia of medicine extending over a million words. It surveyed the entire medical knowledge available from ancient and Muslim sources. Due to its systematic approach, "formal perfection as well as its intrinsic value, the Qanun superseded Razi's Hawi, Ali Ibn Abbas's Maliki, and even the works of Galen, and remained supreme for six centuries". In addition to bringing together the then available knowledge, the book is rich with the author's original contribution. His important original contribution includes such advances as recognition of the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis; distribution of diseases by water and soil, and interaction between psychology and health. In addition to describing pharmacological methods, the book described 760 drugs and became the most authentic materia medica of the era. He was also the first to describe meningitis and made rich contributions to anatomy, gynaecology and child health.

 

His philosophical encyclopedia Kitab al-Shifa was a monumental work, embodying a vast field of knowledge from philosophy to science. He classified the entire field as follows: theoretical knowledge: physics, mathematics and metaphysics; and practical knowledge: ethics, economics and politics. His philosophy synthesizes Aristotelian tradition, Neoplatonic influences and Muslim theology.

 

Ibn Sina also contributed to mathematics, physics, music and other fields. He explained the "casting out of nines" and its application to the verification of squares and cubes. He made several astronomical observations, and devised a contrivance similar to the vernier, to increase the precision of instrumental readings. In physics, his contribution comprised the study of different forms of energy, heat, light and mechanical, and such concepts as force, vacuum and infinity. He made the important observation that if the. perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by the luminous source, the speed of light must be finite. He propounded an interconnection between time and motion, and also made investigations on specific gravity and used an air thermometer.

 

In the field of music, his contribution was an improvement over Farabi's work and was far ahead of knowledge prevailing elsewhere on the subject. Doubling with the fourth and fifth was a 'great' step towards the harmonic system and doubling with the third' seems to have also been allowed. Ibn Sina observed that in the series of consonances represented by ( n + 1 ) /n, the ear is unable to distinguish them when n = 45. In the field of chemistry, he did not believe in the possibility of chemical transmutation because, in his opinion, the metals differed in a fundamental sense. These views were radically opposed to those prevailing at the time. His treatise on minerals was one of the "main" sources of geology of the Christian encyclopedists of the thirteenth century. Besides Shifa his well-known treatises in philosophy are al-Najat and Isharat.

 

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ABU MARWAN IBN ZUHR

( 1091 - 1161 A. D. )

 

 

Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik Ibn Zuhr was born at Seville in 1091/c. 1094 A.D. After completing his education and specializing in medicine, he entered the service of Almoravides (Al-Murabatun), but after their defeat by the AL-Mohades (Al-Muwahadun), he served under 'Abd al-Mu'min, the first Muwahid ruler. He died in Seville in 1161/c. 1162 A.D. As confirmed by George Sarton, he was not a Jew, but an orthodox Muslim.

 

Ibn Zuhr was one of the greatest physicians and clinicians of the Muslim golden era and has rather been held by some historians of science as the greatest of them. Contrary to the general practice of the Muslim scholars of that era, he confined his work to only one field : medicine. This enabled him to produce works of everlasting fame.

 

As a physician, he made several discoveries and breakthroughs. He described correctly, for the first time, scabies, the itch mite and may thus be regarded as the first parasitologist. Likewise, he prescribed tracheotomy and direct feeding through the gullet and rectum in the cases where normal feeding was not possible. He also gave clinical descriptions of mediastinal tumors, intestinal phthisis, inflammation of the middle ear, pericarditis, etc.

 

His contribution was chiefly contained in the monumental works written by him; out of these, however, only. three are extant. Kitab al-Taisir fi al-Mudawat wa al-Tadbir (Book of Simplification concerning Therapeutics and Diet), written at the request of Ibn Rushd (Averroes), is the most important work of Ibn Zuhr. It describes several of Ibn Zuhr's original contributions. The book gives in detail pathological conditions, followed by therapy. His Kitab al-Iqtisad fi Islah al-Anfus wa al-Ajsad (Book of the Middle Course concerning the Reformation of Souls and the Bodies) gives a summary of diseases, therapeutics and hygiene written specially for the benefit of the layman. Its initial part is a valuable discourse on psychology. Kitab al-Aghziya (Book on Foodstuffs) describes different types of food and drugs and their effects on health.

 

Ibn Zuhr in his works lays stress on observation and experiment and his contribution greatly influenced the medical science for several centuries both in the East and the West. His books were translated into Latin and Hebrew and remained popular in Europe as late as the advent of the l8th century.

 

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JABIR IBN HAIYAN

( Died 803 A.D. )

 

 

Jabir Ibn Haiyan, the alchemist Geber of the Middle Ages, is generally known as the father of chemistry. Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan, sometimes called al-Harrani and al-Sufi, was the son of the druggist (Attar). The precise date of his birth is the subject of some discussion, but it is established that he practiced medicine and alchemy in Kufa around 776 A.D. He is reported to have studied under Imam Ja'far Sadiq and the Ummayed prince Khalid Ibn Yazid. In his early days, he practiced medicine and was under the patronage of the Barmaki Vizir during the Abbasid Caliphate of Haroon al-Rashid. He shared some of the effects of the downfall of the Barmakis and was placed under house arrest in Kufa, where he died in 803 A.D.

 

Jabir's major contribution was in the field of chemistry. He introduced experimental investigation into alchemy, which rapidly changed its character into modern chemistry. On the ruins of his well-known laboratory remained after centuries, but his fame rests on over 100 monumental treatises, of which 22 relate to chemistry and alchemy. His contribution of fundamental importance to chemistry includes perfection of scientific techniques such as crystallization, distillation, calcination, sublimation and evaporation and development of several instruments for the same. The fact of early development of chemistry as a distinct branch of science by the Arabs, instead of the earlier vague ideas, is well-established and the very name chemistry is derived from the Arabic word al-Kimya, which was studied and developed extensively by the Muslim scientists.

 

Perhaps Jabir's major practical achievement was the discovery of mineral and others acids, which he prepared for the first time in his alembic (Anbique). Apart from several contributions of basic nature to alchemy, involving largely the preparation of new compounds and development of chemical methods, he also developed a number of applied chemical processes, thus becoming a pioneer in the field of applied science. His achievements in this field include preparation of various metals, development of steel, dyeing of cloth and tanning of leather, varnishing of water-proof cloth, use of manganese dioxide in glass-making, prevention of rusting, lettering in gold, identification of paints, greases, etc. During the course of these practical endeavours, he also developed aqua regia to dissolve gold. The alembic in his great invention, which made easy and systematic the process of distillation. Jabir laid great stress on experimentation and accuracy in his work.

 

Based on their properties, he has described three distinct types of substances. First, spirits i.e. those which vaporize on heating, like camphor, arsenic and ammonium chloride; secondly, metals, for example, gold, silver, lead, copper, iron; and thirdly, the category of compounds which can be converted into powders. He thus paved the way for such later classification as metals, non-metals and volatile substances.

 

Although known as an alchemist, he did not seem to have seriously pursued the preparation of noble metals as an alchemist; instead he devoted his effort to the development of basic chemical methods and study of mechanisms of chemical reactions in them- selves and thus helped evolve chemistry as a science from the legends of alchemy. He emphasized that, in chemical reactions, definite quantities of various substances are involved and thus can be said to have paved the way for the law of constant proportions.

 

A large number of books are included in his corpus. Apart from chemistry, he also contributed to other sciences such as medicine and astronomy. His books on chemistry, including his Kitab-al-Kimya, and Kitab al-Sab'een were translated into Latin and various European languages. These translations were popular in Europe for several centuries arid have influenced the evolution of modern chemistry. Several technical terms devised by Jabir, such as alkali, are today found in various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary. Only a few of his books have been edited and published, while several others preserved in Arabic have yet to be annotated and published.

 

Doubts have been expressed as to whether all the voluminous work included in the corpus is his own contribution or it contains later commentaries/additions by his followers. According to Sarton, the true worth of his work would only be known when all his books have been edited and published. His religious views and philosophical concepts embodied in the corpus have been criticized but, apart from the question of their authenticity, it is to be emphasized that the major contribution of Jabir lies in the field of chemistry and not in religion. His various breakthroughs e.g., preparation of acids for the first time, notably nitric, hydrochloric, citric and tartaric acids, and emphasis on systematic experimentation are outstanding and it is on the basis of such work that he can justly be regarded as the father of modern chemistry. In the words of Max Mayerhaff, the development of chemistry in Europe can be traced directly to Jabir Ibn Haiyan.

 

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MOHAMMAD BIN MUSA AL-KHAWARIZMI

( Died 840 A. D.)

 

 

Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi was born at Khawarizm ( Kheva), south of Aral sea. Very little is known about his early life, except for the fact that his parents had migrated to a place south of Baghdad. The exact dates of his birth and death are also not known, but it is established that he flourished under Al-Mamun at Baghdad through 813-833 and probably died around 840 A.D.

 

Khawarizmi was a mathematician, astronomer and geographer. He was perhaps one of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived, as, in fact, he was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics. In the words of Phillip Hitti, he influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other mediaeval writer. His work on algebra was outstanding, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but he also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations, which established him as the founder of Algebra. The very name Algebra has been derived from his famous book Al-Jabr wa-al-Mfuqabilah. His arithmetic synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science. Thus, he explained the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance developed by the Arabs. Similarly, he developed the decimal system so that the overall system of numerals 'algorithm' or 'algorizm' is named after him. In addition to introducing the Indian system of numerals (now generally known as Arabic numerals), he developed at length several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions. It was through his work that the system of numerals was first introduced to Arabs and later to Europe, through its translations in European languages. He developed in detail trigonometric tables containing the sine functions, which were probably extrapolated to tangent functions by Maslama. He also perfected the geometric representation of comic sections and developed the calculus of two errors, which practically led him to the concept of differentiation. He is also reported to have collaborated in the degree measurements ordered by Mamun al-Rashid were aimed at measuring of volume and circumference of the earth.

 

The development of astronomical tables by him was a significant contribution to the science of astronomy, on which he also wrote a book. The contribution of Khawarizmi to geography is also outstanding, in that not only did he revise Ptolemy's views on geography, but also corrected them in detail as well as his map of the world. His other contributions include original work related to clocks, sun-dials and astrolabes.

 

Several of his books were translated into Latin in the early l2th century. In fact, his book on arithmetic, Kitab al-Jam 'a wal- Ta freeq bil Hisab al-Hindi, was lost in Arabic but survived in a Latin translation. His book on algebra, Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, was also translated into Latin in the l2th century, and it was this translation which introduced this new science to the West "completely unknown till then". He astronomical tables were also translated into European languages and, later, into Chinese. His geography captioned Kitab Surat-al-Ard, together with its maps, was also translated. In addition, he wrote a book on the Jewish calendar Istihhraj Tarikh al-Yahud, and two books on the astrolabe. He also wrote Kitab al-Tarikh and his book on sun-dials was captioned Kitab al-Rukhmet, but both of them have been lost.

 

The influence of Khawarizmi on the growth of science, in general, and mathematics, astronomy and geography in particular, is well established in history. Several of his books were readily translated into a number of other languages, and, in fact, constituted the university text-books till the l6th century. His approach was systematic and logical, and not only did he bring together the then prevailing knowledge on various branches of science, particularly mathematics, but also enriched it through his original contribution. No doubt he has been held in high repute throughout the centuries since then.

 

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OMAR AL-KHAYYAM

( 1044 - 1123 A. D.)

 

 

Ghiyath al-Din Abul Fateh Omar Ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam was born at Nishapur, the provincial capital of Khurasan around 1044 A.D. (c. 1038 to 1048). Persian mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, physician and poet, he is commonly known as Omar Khayyam. Khayyam means the tent-maker, and although generally considered as Persian, it has also been suggested that he could have belonged to the Khayyami tribe of Arab origin who might have settled in Persia. Little is known about his early life, except for the fact that he was educated at Nishapur and lived there and at Samarqand for most of his life. He was a contemporary of Nizam al-Mulk Tusi. Contrary to the available opportunities, he did not like to be employed at the King's court and led a calm life devoted to search for knowledge. He traveled to the great centers of learning, Samarqand, Bukhara, Balkh and Isphahan in order to study further and exchange views with the scholars there. While at Samarqand he was patronized by a dignitary, Abu Tahir. He died at Nishapur in 1123-24.

 

Algebra would seem to rank first among the fields to which he contributed. He made an attempt to classify most algebraic equations, including the third degree equations and, in fact, offered solutions for a number of them. This includes geometric solutions of cubic equations and partial geometric solutions of most other equations. His book Maqalat fi al-Jabr wa al-Muqabila is a masterpiece on algebra and has great importance in the development of algebra. His remarkable classification of equations is based on the complexity of the equations, as the higher the degree of an equation, the more terms, or combinations of terms, it will contain. Thus, Khayyam recognizes 13 different forms of cubic equation. His method of solving equations is largely geometrical and depends upon an ingenious selection of proper conics. He also developed the binomial expansion when the exponent is a positive integer. In fact, he has been considered to be the first to find the binomial theorem and determine binomial coefficients. In geometry, he studied generalities of Euclid and contributed to the theory of parallel lines.

 

The Saljuq Sultan, Malikshah Jalal al-Din, called him to the new observatory at Ray around 1074 and assigned him the task of determining a correct solar calendar. This had become necessary in view of the revenue collections and other administrative matters that were to be performed at different times of the year. Khayyam introduced a calendar that was remarkably accurate, and was named as Al-Tarikh-al-Jalali. It had an error of one day in 3770 years and was thus even superior to the Georgian calendar ( error of 1 day in 3330 years).

 

His contributions to other fields of science include a study of generalities of Euclid, development of methods for the accurate determination of specific gravity, etc. In metaphysics, he wrote three books Risala Dar Wujud and the recently discovered Nauruznamah. He was also a renowned astronomer and a physician.

 

Apart from being a scientist, Khayyam was also a well-known poet. In this capacity, he has become more popularly known in the Western world since 1839, when Edward Fitzgerald published an English translation of his Rubaiyat (quatrains). This has since become one of the most popular classics of the world literature. It should be appreciated that it is practically impossible to exactly translate any literary work into another language, what to talk of poetry, especially when it involves mystical and philosophical messages of deep complexity. Despite this, the popularity of the translation of Rubaiyat would indicate the worth of his rich thought.

 

Khayyam wrote a large number of books and monographs in the above areas. Out of these, 10 books and thirty monographs have been identified. Of these, four concern mathematics, three physics, three metaphysics, one algebra and one geometry.

 

His influence on the development of mathematics in general and analytical geometry, in particular, has been immense. His work remained ahead of others for centuries till the times of Descartes, who applied the same geometrical approach in solving cubics. His frame as a mathematician has been partially eclipsed by his popularity as a poet; nonetheless his contribution as a philosopher and scientist has been of significant value in furthering the frontiers of human knowledge.

 

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YAQUB IBN ISHAQ AL-KINDI

( 800 - 873 A.D.)

 

 

Abu Yousuf Yaqub Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi was born at Kufa around 800 A.D. His father was an official of Haroon al-Rashid. Al-Kindi was a contemporary of al-Mamun, al-Mu'tasim and al-Mutawakkil and flourished largely at Baghdad. He w as formally employed by Mutawakkil as a calligrapher. On account of his philosophical views, Mutawakkil was annoyed with him and confiscated all his books. These were, however, returned latex on. He died in 873 A.D. during the reign of al-M'utamid.

 

Al-Kindi was a philosopher, mathematician, physicist, astronomer physician, geographer and even an expert in music. It is surprising that he made original contributions to all of these fields. On account of his work he became known as the philosopher of the Arabs.

 

In mathematics, he wrote four books on the number system and laid the foundation of a large part of modern arithmetic. No doubt the Arabic system of numerals was largely developed by al-Khawarizmi, but al-Kindi also made rich contributions to it. He also contributed to spherical geometry to assist him in astronomical studies.

 

In chemistry, he opposed the idea that base metals can be converted to precious metals. In contrast to prevailing alchemical views, he was emphatic that chemical reactions cannot bring about the transformation of elements. In physics, he made rich contributions to geometrical optics and wrote a book on it. This book later on provided guidance and inspiration to such eminent scientists as Roger Bacon.

 

In medicine, his chief contribution comprises the fact that he was the first to systematically determine the doses to be administered of all the drugs known at his time. This resolved the conflicting views prevailing among physicians on the dosage that caused difficulties in writing recipes.

 

Very little was known on the scientific aspects of music in his time. He pointed out that the various notes that combine to produce harmony, have a specific pitch each. Thus, notes with too low or too high a pitch are non-pleasant. The degree of harmony depends on the frequency of notes, etc. He also pointed out the fact that when a sound is produced, it generates waves in the air which strike the ear-drum. His work contains a notation on the determination of pitch.

 

He was a prolific writer: the total number of books written by him was 241, the prominent among which were divided as follows :

 

Astronomy 16, Arithmetic 11, Geometry 32, Medicine 22, Physics 12, Philosophy 22, Logic 9, Psychology 5, and Music 7.

 

In addition, various monographs written by him concern tides, astronomical instruments, rocks, precious stones, etc. He was also an early translator of Greek works into Arabic, but this fact has largely been over-shadowed by his numerous original writings. It is unfortunate that most of his books are no longer extant, but those existing speak very high of his standard of scholarship and contribution. He was known as Alkindus in Latin and a large number of his books were translated into Latin by Gherard of Cremona. His books that were translated into Latin during the Middle Ages comprise Risalah dar Tanjim, Ikhtiyarat al-Ayyam, Ilahyat-e-Aristu, al-Mosiqa, Mad-o-Jazr, and Adviyah Murakkaba. Al-Kindi's influence on development of science and philosophy was significant in the revival of sciences in that period. In the Middle Ages, Cardano considered him as one of the twelve greatest minds. His works, in fact, lead to further development of various subjects for centuries, notably physics, mathematics, medicine and music.

 

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ABUL HASAN ALI AZ-MASU'DI

( DIED 957 A.D.)

 

 

Abul Hasan Ali Ibn Husain Ibn Ali AL-Masu'di was a descendant of Abdallah Ibn Masu'd, a companion of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him). An expert geographer, a physicist and historian, Masu'di was born in the last decade of the 9th century A.D., his exact date of birth being unknown. He was a Mutazilite Arab, who explored distant lands and died at Cairo, in 957 A.D.

 

He traveled to Fars in 915 A.D. and, after staying for one year in Istikhar, he proceeded via Baghdad to India, where he visited Multan and Mansoora before returning to Fars. From there he traveled to Kirman and then again to India. Mansoora in those days was a city of great renown and was the capital of the Muslim state of Sind. Around it, there were many settlements/townships of new converts to Islam. In 918 A.D., Masu'di traveled to Gujrat, where more than 10,000 Arab Muslims had settled in the sea-port of Chamoor. He also traveled to Deccan, Ceylon, Indo-China and China, and proceeded via Madagascar, Zanjibar and Oman to Basra.

 

At Basra he completed his book Muruj-al-Zahab, in which he has described in a most absorbing manner his experience of various countries, peoples and climates. He gives accounts of his personal contacts with the Jews, Iranians, Indians and Christians. From Basra he moved to Syria and from there to Cairo, where he wrote his second extensive book Muruj al-Zaman in thirty volumes. In this book he has described in detail the geography and history of the countries that he had visited. His first book was completed in 947 A.D. He also prepared a supplement, called Kitab al-Ausat, in which he has compiled historical events chronologically. In 957 A.D., the year of his death, he completed his last book Kitab al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, in which he has given a summary of his earlier book as well as an errata.

 

Masu'di is referred to as the Herodotus and Pliny of the Arabs. By presenting a critical account of historical events, he initiated a change in the art of historical writing, introducing the elements of analysis, reflection and criticism, which was later on further improved by Ibn Khaldun. In particular, in Al-Tanbeeh he makes a systematic study of history against a perspective of geography, sociology, anthropology and ecology. Masu'di had a deep insight into the causes of rise and fall of nations.

 

With his scientific and analytical approach he has given an account of the causes of the earthquake of 955 A.D., as well as the discussions of the water of the Red Sea and other problems in the earth sciences. He is the first author to make mention of windmills, which were invented by the Muslims of Sijistan.

 

Masu'di also made important contributions to music and other fields of science. In his book Muruj al-Zahab he provides important information on early Arab music as well as music of other countries.

 

His book Muruj al-Zahab wa al-Ma'adin al-Jawahir (Meadows of Gold and Mines of Precious Stones) has been held as 'remarkable' because of the 'catholicity of its author, who neglected no source of information and of his truly scientific curiosity'. As mentioned above, it was followed by his treatise Muruj al-Zaman. In addition to writing a supplement Kitab al-Ausat, he completed Kitab al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf towards the end of his career. It is, however, unfortunate that, out of his 34 books as mentioned by himself in Al-Tanbih, only three have survived, in addition to Al-Tanbih itself.

 

Some doubts have been expressed about some claims related to his extensive traveling e.g., up to China and Madagascar, but the correct situation cannot be assessed due to the loss of his several books. Whatever he has recorded was with a scientific approach and constituted an important contribution to geography, history and earth sciences. It is interesting to note that he was one of the early scientists who propounded several aspects of evolution viz., from minerals to plant, plant to animal and animal to man. His researches and views extensively influenced the sciences of historiography, geography and earth sciences for several countries.

 

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ABU AL-HASAN AL-MAWARDI

( 972-1058 A.D.)

 

 

Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Mawardi was born at Basrah. in 972 A.D. He was educated at first in Basrah where, after completion of his basic education, he learned Fiqah (Islamic jurisprudence) from the jurist Abu al-Wahid al-Simari. He then went to Baghdad for advanced studies under Sheikh Abd al-Hamid and Abdallah al-Baqi. His proficiency in jurisprudence Ethics, Political science and literature proved useful in securing a respectable career for him. After his initial appointment as Qazi (Judge), he was gradually promoted to higher offices, till he became the Chief Justice at Baghdad. The Abbasid Caliph al-Qaim bi Amr Allah appointed him as his roving ambassador and sent him to a number of countries as the head of special missions. In this capacity he played a key role in establishing harmonious relations between the declining Abbasid Caliphate and the rising powers of Buwahids and Seljukes. He was favored with rich gifts and tributes by most Sultans of the time. He was still in Baghdad when it was taken over by Buwahids.

 

AL-Mawardi died in 1058 A.D.

 

AL-Mawardi was a great jurist, mohaddith, sociologist and an expert in Political Science. He was a jurist in the school of Fiqah and his book Al-Havi on the principles of jurisprudence is held in high repute.

 

His contribution in political science and sociology comprises . a number of monumental books, the most famous of which are Kitab al-Ahkam al-Sultania, Qanun al-Wazarah, and Kitab Nasihat al-Mulk. The books discuss the principles of political science, with special reference to the functions and duties of the caliphs, the chief minister, other ministers, relationships between various elements of public and government and measures to strengthen the government and ensure victory in war. Two of these books, al-Ahkam al-Sultania and Qanun al-Wazarah have been published and also translated into various languages. He is considered as being the author/supporter of the 'Doctrine of ' Necessity' in political science. He was thus in favor of a strong caliphate and discouraged unlimited powers delegated to the Governors, which tended to create chaos. On the other hand, he has laid down clear principles for election of the caliph and qualities of the voters, chief among which are attainment of a degree of intellectual level and purity of character.

 

In ethics, he wrote Kitab Aadab al-Dunya wa al-Din, which became a widely popular book on the subject and is still read in some Islamic countries.

 

Al-Mawardi has been considered as one of the most famous thinkers in political science in the middle ages. His original work influenced the development of this science, together with the science of sociology, which was further developed later on by Ibn Khaldun.

 

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MOHAMMAD IBN ZAKARIYA AL-RAZI

( 864 - 930 A.D.)

 

 

Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (864-930 A.D.) was born at Ray, Iran, Initially, he was interested in music but later on he learnt medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and philosophy from a student of Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, who was well versed in the ancient Greek, Persian and Indian systems of medicine and other subjects. He also studied under Ali Ibn Rabban. The practical experience gained at the well-known Muqtadari Hospital helped him in his chosen profession of medicine. At an early age he gained eminence as an expert in medicine and alchemy, so that patients and students flocked to him from distant parts of Asia.

 

He was first placed in-charge of the first Royal Hospital at Ray, from where he soon moved to a similar position in Baghdad where he remained the head of its famous Muqtadari Hospital for a long time. He moved from time to time to various cities, specially between Ray and Baghdad, but finally returned to Ray, where he died around 930 A.D. His name is commemorated in the Razi Institute near Tehran.

 

Razi was a Hakim; an alchemist and a philosopher. In medicine, his 'contribution was so significant that it can only be compared to that of Ibn Sina. Some of his works in medicine e.g. Kitab al-Mansoori, Al-Havi, Kitab al-Mulooki and Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah earned everlasting fame. Kitab al-Mansoori, which was translated into Latin in the l5th century A.D., comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco-Arab medicine. Some of its volumes were published separately in Europe. His al-Judari wal Hasabah was the first treatise on smallpox and chicken-pox, and is largely based on Razi's original contribution. It was translated into various European languages. Through this treatise he became the first to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chicken-pox. Al-Havi was the largest medical encyclopedia composed by then. It contained on each medical subject all important information that was available from Greek and Arab sources, and this was concluded by him by giving his own remarks based on his experience and views. A special feature of his medical system was that he greatly favored cure through correct and regulated food. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health. He also tried proposed remedies first on animals in order to evaluate in their effects and side effects. He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anesthesia.

 

In addition to being a physician, he compounded medicines and, in his later years, gave himself over to experimental and theoretical sciences. It seems possible that he developed his chemistry independently of Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He has portrayed in great detail several chemical reactions and also given full descriptions of and designs f or about twenty instruments used in chemical investigations. His description of chemical knowledge is in plain and plausible language. One of his books called Kitab-al-Asrar deals with the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization. Another one was translated into Latin under the name Liber Experimentorum, He went beyond his predecessors in dividing substances into plants, animals and minerals, thus in a way opening the way for inorganic and organic chemistry. By and large, this classification of the three kingdoms still holds. As a chemist, he was the first to produce sulfuric acid together with some other acids, and he also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products.

 

His contribution as a philosopher is also well known. The basic elements in his philosophical system are the creator, spirit, matter, space and time. He discusses their characteristics in detail and his concepts of space and time as constituting a continuum are outstanding. His philosophical views were, however, criticized by a number of other Muslim scholars of the era.

 

He was a prolific author, who has left monumental treatises on numerous subjects. He has more than 200 outstanding scientific contributions to his credit, out of which about half deal with medicine and 21 concern alchemy. He also wrote on physics, mathematics, astronomy and optics, but these writings could not be preserved. A number of his books, including Jami-fi-al-Tib, Mansoori, al-Havi, Kitab al-Jadari wa at-Hasabah, al-Malooki, Maqalah fi al-Hasat fi Kuli wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitab al-Mafasil, Kitab-al-'Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-Sa'ah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir, have been published in various European languages. About 40 of his manuscripts are still extant in the museums and libraries of Iran, Paris, Britain, Rampur, and Bankipur. His contribution has greatly influenced the development of science, in general, and medicine, in particular.

 

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JALAL AL-DIN RUMI

( 1207-1273 A.D.)

 

 

Jalal al-Din Mohammad Ibn Mohammad Ibn Mohammad Ibn Husain al-Rumi was born in 604 A.H. (1207/8 A.D.) at Balkh (now Afghanistan). His father Baha al-Din was a renowned religious scholar. Under his patronage, Rumi received his early education from Syed Burhan-al-Din. When his age was about 18 years, the family ( after several migrations) finally settled at Konya and at the age of 25, Rumi was sent to Aleppo for advanced education and later to Damascus. Rumi continued with his education till he was 40 years old, although on his father's death Rumi succeeded him as a professor in the famous Madrasah at Konya at the age of about 24 years. He received his mystical training first at the hands of Syed Burhan al-Din and later he was trained by Shams al-Din Tabriz. He became famous for his mystical insight, his religious knowledge and as a Persian poet. He used to teach a large number of pupils at his Madrasah and also founded the famous Maulvi Order in Tasawwuf. He died in 672 A.H. (1273 A.D.) at Konya, which subsequently became a sacred place for dancing dervishes of the Maulvi Order.

 

His major contribution lies in Islamic philosophy and Tasawwuff. This was embodied largely in poetry, especially through his famous Mathnavi. This book, the largest mystical exposition in verse, discusses and offers solutions to many complicated problems in metaphysics, religion, ethics, mysticism, etc. Fundamentally, the Mathnavi highlights the various hidden aspects of Sufism and their relationship with the worldly life. For this, Rumi draws on a variety of subjects and derives numerous examples from everyday life. His main subject is the relationship between man and God on the one hand, and between man and man, on the other. He apparently believed in Pantheism and portrayed the various stages of man's evolution in his journey towards the Ultimate.

 

Apart from the Mathnavi, he also wrote his Divan (collection of poems) and Fihi-Ma-Fih (a collection of mystical sayings). However, it is the Mathnavi itself that has largely transmitted Rumi's message. Soon after its completion, other scholars started writing detailed commentaries on it, in order to interpret its rich propositions on Tasawwuff, Metaphysics and Ethics. Several commentaries in different languages have been written since then.

 

His impact on philosophy, literature, mysticism and culture, has been so deep throughout Central Asia and most Islamic countries that almost all religious scholars, mystics, philosophers, sociologists and others have referred to his verses during all these centuries. since his death. Most difficult problems in these areas seem to get simplified in the light of his references. His message seems to have inspired most of the intellectuals in Central Asia and adjoining areas since his time, and scholars like Iqbal have further developed Rumi's concepts. The Mathnavi became known as the interpretation of the Qur'an in the Pahlavi language. He is one of the few intellectuals and mystics whose views have so profoundly affected the world-view in its higher perspective in large parts of the Islamic World.

 

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ALI IBN RABBAN AL-TABARI

( 838 - 870 A.D.)

 

 

This accomplished Hakim was the tutor of the unparalleled physician Zakariya al-Razi. Luck favored the disciple more than the teacher in terms of celebrity. As compared to Razi people know very little about his teacher Ali.

 

Ali Bin Rabban's surname was Abu al-Hasan, the full name being Abu al-Hasan Ali Bin Sahl Rabban al-Tabari. Born in 838 A.D. his father Sahl hailed from a respectable Jew family. The nobility and sympathy inherent in his very nature soon endeared him to his countrymen so much so that they used to call him Rabban which implies "my leader".

 

Professionally Sahl was an extremely successful physician. He had command over the art of calligraphy too. Besides he had a deep insight into the disciplines of Astronomy, Philosophy, Mathematics and Literature. Some complicated articles of Batlemus's book al-Mijasti came to be resolved by way of Sahl's scholarly expertise, translators preceding him had failed to solve the mystery.

 

Ali received his education in the disciplines of Medical science and calligraphy from his able father Sahl and attained perfection in these fields. He had also mastered Syriac and Greek languages to a high degree of proficiency.

 

Ali hailed from a Israelite family. Since he had embraced Islam, he is classified amongst Muslim Scholars. This family belonged to Tabristan's famous city Marv.

 

The fame acquired by Ali Bin Rabban did not simply account for the reason that a physician of the stature of Zakariya al-Razi was amongst his disciple. In fact the main cause behind his exaltation lies in his world-renowned treatise Firdous al-Hikmat.

 

Spread over seven parts, Firdous al-Hikmat is the first ever Medical encyclopedia which incorporates all the branches of medical science in its folds. This work has been published in this century (20th century) only. Prior to this publication only five of his manuscripts were to be found scattered in libraries the world over. Dr. Mohammed Zubair Siddiqui compared and edited the manuscripts. In his preface he has provided extremely useful information regarding the book and the author and, wherever felt necessary, explanatory notes have been written to facilitate publication of this work on modern publishing standards.

 

Later on this unique work was published with the cooperation of English and German institutions. Following are the details of its all seven parts:

 

1. Part one: Kulliyat-e-Tibb. This part throws light on contemporary ideology of medical science. In that era these principles formed the basis of medical science.

2. Part two: Elucidation of the organs of the human body, rules for keeping good health and comprehensive account of certain muscular diseases.

3. Part three: Description of diet to be taken in conditions of health and disease.

4. Part four: All diseases right from head to toe. This part is of profound significance in the whole book and comprises twelve papers:

 

i) General causes relating to eruption of diseases. ii) Diseases of the head and the brain. iii) Diseases relating to the eye, nose, ear, mouth and the teeth. iv) Muscular diseases (paralysis and spasm). v) Diseases of the regions of the chest, throat and the lungs. vi) Diseases of the abdomen. vii) Diseases of the liver. viii) Diseases of gallbladder and, spleen. ix) Intestinal diseases. x) Different kinds of fever. xi) Miscellaneous diseases -- Brief explanation of organs of the body. xii) Examination of pulse and urine. This part is the largest in the book and is almost half the size of the whole book.

 

5. Part five: Description of flavor, taste and color.

6. Part six: Drugs and poison.

7. Part seven: Deals with diverse topics. Discusses climate and astronomy. Also contains a brief mention of Indian medicine.

 

Though he wrote Firdous al-Hikmat in Arabic but he simultaneously translated it into Syriac. He has two more compilations to his credit namely Deen-o-Doulat and Hifz al-Sehhat. The latter is available in manuscript-form in the library of Oxford University. Besides Medical science, he was also a master of Philosophy, Mathematics and Astronomy. He breathed his last around 870 A.D.

 

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THABIT IBN QURRA

( 836 - 901 A.D. )

 

 

Thabit Ibn Qurra Ibn Marwan al-Sabi al-Harrani was born in the year 836 A.D. at Harran (present Turkey). As the name indicates he was basically a member of the Sabian sect, but the great Muslim mathematician Muhammad Ibn Musa Ibn Shakir, impressed by his knowledge of languages, and realizing his potential for a scientific career, selected him to join the scientific group at Baghdad that was being patronized by the Abbasid Caliphs. There, he studied under the famous Banu Musa brothers. It was in this 'setting that Thabit contributed to several branches of science, notably mathematics, astronomy and mechanics, in addition to translating a large number of works from Greek to Arabic. Later, he was patronized by the Abbasid Caliph al-M'utadid. After a long career of scholarship, Thabit died at Baghdad in 901 A.D.

 

Thabit's major contribution lies in mathematics and astronomy. He was instrumental in extending the concept of traditional geometry to geometrical algebra and proposed several theories that led to the development of non-Euclidean geometry, spherical trigonometry, integral calculus and real numbers. He criticized a number of theorems of Euclid's elements and proposed important improvements. He applied arithmetical terminology to geometrical quantities, and studied several aspects of conic sections, notably those of parabola and ellipse. A number of his computations aimed at determining the surfaces and volumes of different types of bodies and constitute, in fact, the processes of integral calculus, as developed later.

 

In astronomy he was one of the early reformers of Ptolemic views. He analyzed several problems related to the movements of sun and moon and wrote treatises on sun-dials.

 

In the fields of mechanics and physics he may be recognized as the founder of statics. He examined conditions of equilibrium of bodies, beams and levers.

 

In addition to translating a large number of books himself, he founded a school of translation and supervised the translation of a further large number of books from Greek to Arabic.

 

Among Thabit's writings a large number have survived, while several are not extant. Most of the books are on mathematics, followed by astronomy and medicine. The books have been written in Arabic but some are in Syriac. In the Middle Ages, some of his books were translated into Latin by Gherard of Cremona. In recent centuries, a number of his books have been translated into European languages and published.

 

He carried further the work of the Banu Musa brothers and later his son and grandson continued in this tradition, together with the other members of the group. His original books as well as his translations accomplished in the 9th century exerted a positive influence on the development of subsequent scientific research.

 

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NASIR AL-DIN AL-TUSI

( 1201 - 1274 A.D.)

 

 

Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was born in Tus (Khurasan) in 1201 A.D. He learnt sciences and philosophy from Kamal al-Din Ibn Yunus and others. He was one of those who were kidnapped by Hasan Bin Sabah's agents and sent to Almut, Hasan's stronghold. In 1256 when Almut was conquered by the Mongols, Nasir al-Din joined Halagu's service. Halagu Khan was deeply impressed by his knowledge, including his astrological competency; appointed him as one of his ministers, and, later on, as administrator of Auqaf. He was instrumental in the establishment and progress of the observatory at Maragha. In his last year of life he went to Baghdad and died there.

 

Nasir al-Din was one of the greatest scientists, philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, theologians and physicians of the time and was a prolific writer. He made significant contributions to a large number of subjects, and it is indeed difficult to present his work in a few words. He wrote one or several treatises on different sciences and subjects including those on geometry, algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry, medicine, metaphysics, logic, ethics and theology. In addition he wrote poetry in Persian.

 

In mathematics, his major contribution would seem to be in trigonometry, which was compiled by him as a new subject in its own right for the first time. Also he developed the subject of spherical trigonometry, including six fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical right-angled triangles.

 

As the chief scientist at the observatory established under his supervision at Maragha, he made significant contributions to astronomy. The observatory was equipped with the best possible instruments, including those collected by the Mongol armies from Baghdad and other Islamic centers. The instruments included astrolabes, representations of constellations, epicycles, shapes of spheres, etc. He himself invented an instrument 'turquet' that contained two planes. After the devoted work of 12 years at the observatory and with the assistance of his group, he produced new astronomical tables called 'Al-Zij-Ilkhani' dedicated to Ilkhan (Halagu Khan). Although Tusi had contemplated completing the tables in 30 years, the time required for the completion of planetary cycles, but he had to complete them in 12 years on orders from Halagu Khan. The tables were largely based on original observations, but also drew upon the then existing knowledge on the subject. The 'Zij Ilkhani' became the most popular tables among astronomers and remained so till the 15th century. Nasir al-Din pointed out several serious shortcomings in Ptolemy's astronomy and foreshadowed the later dissatisfaction with the system that culminated in the Copernican reforms.

 

In philosophy, apart from his contribution in logic and metaphysics , his work on ethics entitled Akhlaq-i-Nasri became the most important book on the subject, and remained popular for centuries. His book Tajrid-al-'Aqaid was a major work on al-Kalam (Islamic Scholastic Philosophy) and enjoyed widespread popularity. Several commentaries were written on this book and even a number of supercommentaries on the major commentaries, Sharh Qadim and Sharh Jadid.

 

The list of his known treatises is exhaustive; Brockelmann lists 56 and Sarton 64. About one-fourth of these concern mathematics, another fourth astronomy, another fourth philosophy and religion, and the remainder other subjects. The books, though originally written in Arabic and Persian, were translated into Latin and other European languages in the Middle Ages and several of these have been printed.

 

Tusi's influence has been significant in the development of science, notably in mathematics and astronomy. His books were widely consulted for centuries and he has been held in high repute for his rich contributions.

 

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ABU AL-QASIM AL-ZAHRAVI

( 936 - 1013 A.D.)

 

 

Abul Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas al-Zahravi (known in the west as Abulcasis) was born in 936 A.D. in Zahra in the neighborhood of Cordova. He became one of the most renowned surgeons of the Muslim era and was physician to King Al-Hakam-II of Spain. After a long medical career, rich with significant original contribution, he died in 1013 A.D.

 

He is best known for his early and original breakthroughs in surgery as well as for his famous Medical Encyclopedia called Al-Tasrif, which is composed of thirty volumes covering different aspects of medical science. The more important part of this series comprises three books on surgery, which describe in detail various aspects of surgical treatment as based on the operations performed by him, including cauterization, removal of stone from the bladder, dissection of animals, midwifery, stypics, and surgery of eye, ear and throat. He perfected several delicate operations, including removal of the dead foetus and amputation.

 

Al-Tasrif was first translated by Gherard of Cremona into Latin in the Middle Ages. It was followed by several other editors in Europe. The book contains numerous diagrams and illustrations of surgical instruments, in use or developed by him, and comprised a part of the medical curriculum in European countries for many centuries. Contrary to the view that the Muslims fought shy of surgery, Al-Zahravi's Al-Tasrif provided a monumental collection for this branch of applied science.

 

Al-Zahravi was the inventor of several surgical instruments, of which three are notable: (i) an instrument for internal examination of the ear, (ii) an instrument for internal inspection of the urethra, and (iii) and instrument for applying or removing foreign bodies from the throat. He specialized in curing disease by cauterization and applied the technique to as many as 50 different operations.

 

In his book Al-Tasrif, Al-Zahravi has also discussed the preparation of various medicines, in addition to a comprehensive account of surgical treatment in specialized branches, whose modern counterparts are E.N.T., Ophthalmology, etc. In connection with the preparation of medicines, he has also described in detail the application of such techniques as sublimation and decantation. Al-Zahravi was also an expert in dentistry, and his book contains sketches of various instruments used thereof, in addition to a description of various important dental operations. He discussed the problem of non-aligned or deformed teeth and how to rectify these defects. He developed the technique of preparing artificial teeth and of replacement of defective teeth by these. In medicine, he was the first to describe in detail the unusual disease, hemophilia.

 

There can be no doubt that Al-Zahravi influenced the field of medicine and surgery very deeply and the principles laid down by him were recognized as authentic in medical science, especially surgery, and these continued to influence the medical world for five centuries. According to Dr. Cambell (History of Arab Medicine), his principles of medical science surpassed those of Galen in the European medical curriculum.

[Jabhad]

Thank you br Muhammad for your good efforts to educate us nomads about our Islamic history.