Islamic Militancy in the History of Somalia

[Dal Aqoon]

By:Abdurahman Abdullahi (Baadiyow)

January, 02, 2010 -

 

Militancy simply means having a combative character; aggressive,

especially in the service of a cause. Adding Islamic adjective

signifies that certain interpretation of Islam is used as the guiding

ideology of that militancy. The first such militancy in the history of

Islam was labelled “al-Khawarij” ["the Seceders" or the Rebels]

because of their rebellion [khuruj] against fourth Imam of Islam ‘Ali

ibn Abi Talib. In the opposite stands the terminology of moderation

“balanced” “al-Wasadiyah” which signifies being within

reasonable limits; not excessive or extreme, and not violent or

subject to extremes. In general, Islam calls for moderation in

everything: in belief, warship, conduct, and legislation; and warns

against all forms of extremism: ghuluw (excessiveness), tanattu’

(meticulous religiosity) and tashdid (strictness). Moderation, or

balance, is not only a general characteristic of Islam, it is a

fundamental landmark. In the Qur’anic verse (2:143) Allah says:

“Thus, have we made of you an Ummah (Nation) justly balanced, that

you might be witnesses over the nations and the Messenger a witness

over yourselves”. The phenomenon of Islamic extremism was well

articulated by Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qardawi in his booklet “Islamic

Awakening between Rejection and Extremism” which is very useful to

briefly understand current militancy in a balanced way.

 

Looking into the history of Somalia in the 18th and 19th centuries,

the revival of Islam was carried by the Sufi Brotherhood movements and

legendary Sufi scholars belonging to the three main Sufi Orders:

Qadiriyah, Ahmadiyah and Salihiyah had emerged. The names of Sheikh

Madar, Sheikh Abdirahman Al-Zayli, Sheikh Aweys al-Baraawi, Sheikh

Mohamed Guleed, Sayid Mohamed Abdulle Hassan, Sheikh Ali Maye, Sheikh

Sufi and many others are well known teachers and respected Islamic

Scholars in Somalia. Sufi brotherhoods are generally moderate and use

peaceful means of propagating Islam that offer due consideration to

the norms and customs of the people. Often, they use innovative means

to assimilate and absorb the pastoral and illiterate masses and

mobilize them into common action. Bloodlettings being the most heinous

crime in Islam, Islamic scholars usually abstain from recurrent clan

fighting in the harsh pastoral environment. Their role is limited to

conflict resolution, community education and conducting various

religious functions. However, there were three historical events in

the history of Somalia when Islamic militancy emerged and certain

Islamic scholars led internal fighting to gain politico-religious

hegemony. Such historical events have historical importance and

constitute precedents for current Islamic militancy and extremism in

Somalia. It offers lessons that doctrinal differences and political

ambitions may develop into violent wars under the leadership of

charismatic and ambitious scholars.

 

1. The first event occurred around Baardheere town in the southern

Somalia as a confrontation between the Bardheere religious settlements

(Jamaaca) and the Geledi Sultanates at Afgoye. The Bardheere

settlement was founded in 1819 by Sheikh Ibrahim Yabarow, introducing

some Islamic reforms such as outlawing tobacco and popular dancing and

prohibiting ivory trade. They began to implement some elements of

Islamic Shari’a, such as the wearing of decent Islamic dress for

women. In the mid-1930s, receiving strong adherents, the Jamaaca

decided to expand its sphere of influence to other regions during era

of Sharif Abdirahman and Sharif Ibrahim from Sarmaan in Bakool. By

1840, the Jamaaca warriors reached Baidoa area and Luuq and finally

sacked Baraawe, the historic seat of the Qadiriyah Order where both

Sultan Ahmed Yusuf of Geledi and Sheikh Maadow of Hintire clan

learned, the most powerful leaders who together reacted to the

Baardheere expansions. The town of Baraawe accepted their capitulation

conditions that include prohibiting tobacco and popular dancing,

adopting the Islamic dress code and so on. They also agreed to pay an

annual tax of 500 Pessa. This action provoked a concerted response

from the clans of the inter-river areas under the charismatic

leadership of Geledi Sultan Yusuf Mohamed. The Sultanate mobilized an

expedition force of 40,000 from all clans, stormed Bardheere and

completely burned it. Professor Cassanelli characterized this conflict

as between the rising power of Islamic reformists and the established

traditional power of the Geledi. Moreover, he adds the economic factor

of curbing the lucrative ivory trade as well as a clan aspect, which

stemmed from the armed immigrant nomads, the followers of the Jamaaca,

being perceived as a threat to the local population. The external

actors’ role in this conflict was not well researched, however, it

is said that Sayid Bargash, the Sultan of Zanzibar, was on good terms

with the Geledi Sultanate in the confrontation, perceived to be a

Wahabi “Salafia” penetration into Somalia.

 

2. The second event is connected with the arrival of Sheikh Ali

Abdurahman (*****tain) (1787-1952) in Merca in 1946 and his

confrontation with the dominant Geledi Sultanate. Sheikh Ali *****tain

was born in Nugal region between Growe and Laas-Aanood in the current

Puntland. He traveled to Mecca and Baghdad for further learning where

he met “with the disciples of Mohamed Abdulwahab” and came back to

his home area. He established an Islamic education center at Halin

(Xalin) wells near Taleex. However, he emigrated from his home after

conflict with his clan and moved to the eastern region under the

tutelage of *****tain Sultan Nur Osman. Here also, Sheikh Ali found it

unacceptable to live with the overt violation of Islamic Shari’a by

the Sultan Nur of *****tain, forming an alliance with Haji Farah

Hirsi, a rebel Sultan of *****tain who attempted to establish a new

sultanate or to overthrow his cousin, similar to the Saudi style where

Haji Farah would take political responsibility and Sheikh Ali would

administer religious affairs. To achieve this goal, Sheikh Ali sent a

letter to the ruler of Sharja Sheikh Saqar al-Qasimi offering his

allegiance and requesting his support. However, Sheikh Saqar could not

respond promptly and, dismayed, Sheikh Ali traveled to Zanzibar and

remained there for 15 months under the custody of Sultan Said

al-Bu-Saidi. Having in mind to establish an Islamic Emirate, Sheikh

Ali had arrived in Merca in 1946, three years after the defeat of

Baardheere Jamaaca and the dominance of Geledi Sultanate over the vast

southern regions. However, Biimal clan, the major clan of Merca, was

rebelling against the Geledi sultanate at that time. Sheikh Ali

*****tain had arrived in Merca in alliance with Biimal clan, with 5

boats carrying 150 followers and substantial quantities of firearms

and ammunition. He settled near Merca with the consent of the Biimal

clan and began his activities and education programs. First, he

attempted to play the role of a peacemaker between Sultan Yusuf and

the Biimal clan and sent a letter to Sultan Yusuf requesting that he

accept his reconciliation efforts. However, when Sultan Yusuf refused

his offer, he arbitrarily declared war against him. Sheikh Ali’s

followers confronted the Geledi sultan in 1846 without the support of

Biimal clan and were easily defeated. His expectation of receiving

assistance from Sultan of Zanzibar was dashed, and instead the

Zanzibar sultan helped the Sultan of Geledi to confront what was

perceived as the threat of the “Wahabis”. The doctrinal

inclination of Sheikh Ali is evident in the letter he sent to the

clans of Brava showing that he considered the Geledi Sultanate to be a

deviated sect (firqa dalah). Commenting on the outcome of war, Sheikh

Ali stated according Aw Jamac Omar Iisse that “in reality ours

[deaths] are in paradise and theirs are in hell” and “if you are

among the deviated sect whom Sultan Yusuf leads, there is no relation

between us, and your blood will not be saved from us”. The

intolerance of Sheikh Ali to the propagation of Islam among his

people, his mobilization of armed followers and his siding with the

Biimal clan against the Geledi sultanate, all indicates that he

belonged to a militant ideology similar to that of Bardheere Jamaaca.

 

3. The third significant event was the arrival in Berbera in 1895 of

Sayid Mohamed Abdulle Hassan, which was not only the beginning of

armed encounters with the colonial powers but also initiated internal

conflict among the Somali Sufi Orders. Upon his arrival in Berbera,

Sayid Mohamed challenged the authority and credentials of the

Qadiriyah establishment, setting up the competing Salihiyah Order. He

publicly criticized some practices of Qadiriyah Sheikhs, and

introduced new verdict (fatwas) on some issues, such as prohibition of

chewing Qaad and tobacco, although tolerated by other scholars.

However, Qadiriyah scholars succeeded in overcoming these challenges

through religious debates. Scholars, like Aw Gas and Haji Ibrahim

Hirsi, invited Sheikh Madar from Hargeysa, the head of the Qadiriyah

Order in the region, and Sheikh Abdullahi Arusi, the teacher of Sayid

Mohamed, to participate in a meeting held in Berbera in 1897 to

discuss issues of lawful and prohibited in Islam raised by Sayid

Mohamed. However, after heated discussions on the major disputed

issues, followers of Qadiriyah in Berbera rebelled against Sayid

Mohamed and the British authorities intervened to maintain public

order. As a result, Sayid Mohamed was compelled to emigrate from

Berbera, carrying with him doctrinal enmity against Qadiriyah. This

deep-rooted conflict between Qadiriyah and northern Salihiyah had two

dimensions, political and doctrinal. First, Sayid Mohamed was aiming

to establish an Islamic Emirate under his leadership without

consulting other prominent scholars. His unilateral, authoritarian and

violent approach annoyed many scholars and clan leaders. Second,

Salihiyah questioned the doctrinal credentials of the rival Qadiriyah

Order, condemning them as heretical and claiming that only Salihiyah

was authentic and original. This theological controversy escalated

into the trading of polemics and then developed into bitter propaganda

against each other. For instance, Sheikh Aweys al-Baraawi, the famous

leader of Qadiriyah in southern Somalia wrote poems vilifying

Salihiyah Order. Here are some selected excerpts from the poem,

translated by B.G. Martin:

 

The person guided by Mohamed’s law, will not follow the faction of

Satan [salihiyah]

Who deem it lawful to spill the blood of the learned, who take cash

and women too: they are anarchist

Do not follow those men with big shocks of hair, a coiffure like the

Wahabiya!

Publicly, they sell paradise for cash, in our land; they are a sect

of dogs

They have gone astray and make others deviate on earth, by land and

sea among the Somalis

Have they no reason or understanding? Be not deceived by them

But flee as from a disaster, from their infamy and unbelief.

 

This verbal polemic was countered by a similar diatribe of poems by

Sayid Mohamed, which he concluded as Professor Said Samatar related:

“A word to the backsliding apostates, why have gone astray, from

the Prophet’s way, the straight path? Why is the truth, so plain,

hidden from you?” This developed into physical attacks on the

leaders of Qadiriyah, and on April 14, 1909, followers of Salihiyah

murdered Sheikh Aweys al-Baraawi at Biyooley. Unfortunately, when

Sayid Mohamed heard of the death of Sheikh Aweys he recited a victory

hymn saying “behold, at last, when we slew the old wizard, the rains

began to come!” (Candhagodoble goortaan dilaa roobki noo da’aye).

The implications of this conflict in Somalia were tremendous,

affecting anti-colonial resistance and tarnishing the image of the

Salihiyah Order among the population.

 

On other hand, before the arrival of Sayid Mohamed in Northern

Somalia, there was the Dandarawiyah Order, an offshoot of Ahmadiyah,

in the towns of Sheikh and Haahi. It was introduced into Northern

Somalia by Sayid Adan Ahmed, a disciple of Sayid Ibrahim Al-Rashid.

Sayid Mohamed Abdulle Hassan claimed to be the sole authorised

legitimate heir of the al-Rashidiyah Order in Northern Somalia and

demanded that Dandarawiyah Order in the town of Sheikh and Hahi

(Xaaxi) follow him, which they have utterly refused to do. Against

this background, Sayid Mohamed’s forces burned the Ahmadiyah centers

in the town of Sheikh as reported by Abdirisaq Aqli in his book

“Sheikh Madar”. Sayid Mohamed’s bright points were romanticized

by the Somali nationalists in their efforts to nurture national

consciousness by narrating glorious past and reconstructing symbols,

heroes and myths. In this approach, self inflicted wounds, civil wars,

massacres, and human atrocities are downplayed and belittled. However,

in tracing the background for the current extremism in the name of

Islam, it is necessary to bring up other episodes of the Sayid Mohamed

that suggest the historical roots of the current extremism in Somalia.

 

In conclusion, the early militancy in the name of Islam resembles

current militancy in (1) the exclusion of other Islamic groups, (2)

monopoly of religious legitimacy; (3) excessive use for violence

against other Muslims; and (4) selective and haphazard application of

Shari’a. All these forms of militancy have its roots, connections

and influences of the Salafia (Wahabi) school of Saudi Arabia. The

current extremism and militancy, however, is rooted to the emergence

of Al-itihad al-Islami in 1980s and its militaristic adventure in

1990s which ended in the disastrous defeat in Kismayo, Puntland and

Gedo in 1991, 1992 and 1996 respectively. Moreover, although current

extremism in the name of Islam is a recent phenomenon and an

expression of anger responding to various internal and external

tensions, it is not without precedence in Somalia and the above stated

three episodes attest the occurrences of similar phenomenon despite

the fact that it happened in different context and conditions.

Furthermore, all the three events ended with military defeat and

massive human suffering which most likely will be the fate of current

militancy in Somalia.

 

Abduraxman Baadyow

abdurahmanba@yahoo.com